Effects of Religious Education on Theme and Style of...

Effects of Religious Education on Theme and Style of James Joyces The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Although Joyce rejected Catholic beliefs, the influence of his early training and education is pervasive in his work. The parallels between Biblical text and The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man are abundant. As Cranly says to Stephen, It is a curious thing, do you know, how your mind is supersaturated with the religion in which you say you disbelieve (232). The novel progresses in a way that seems Biblical in nature; thematically it compares with the creation and fall of man and/or Lucifer. In addition, the style is at times similar to Biblical text, using familiar rhythm, repetition, phrasing and imagery. As†¦show more content†¦He hears his fathers voice and the words conjure up images in his childs mind of a cow and a little boy walking down the road. The words have the power to create. He hears the music of language in songs. The artist takes things literally from the beginning. Words which he did not understand he said over and over to himself till he had learned them by heart: and through them he had glimpses of the real world about (57). Language is both symbolic and naturalistic to Joyce. Not only does language serve as symbols to communication and expression, but they have a concrete, physical presence. He hears them, feels them, sees them and reacts to them as separate entities apart from their symbolic value. The sounds of language are emphasized; the word suck sounds like water going down the hole in the basin (6); the keys make a quick music, click, click, click, click (16); the sound of gas burning is like a song (16). He writes, For the words, so beautiful and sad, like music (10). He believes that words have power over him. When he struggles against the sensual temptation of sexual desire, words and images overpower him. His recent monstrous reveries came thronging into his memory. They too had sprung up before him, suddenly and furiously, out of mere words (85). The words that he must use to confess his sin are somehow more terrible than the action. To say it in words? His soul, stifling andShow MoreRelatedLecture on Short Story5432 Words   |  22 Pagesgenerations told to the young by the fire in order to prepare them for future challenges (what we have come to call â€Å"fairy or folk tales†) or the tales that uncovered the mysteries of life and death and the vagaries of natural phenomena in early religious ritual (what we now know as myth). These two short narrative forms, the fairy-tale and the myth, are the distant ancestors of the modern short story. The short story, even in its modern form, partakes to a degree of this desire to illuminate and Read MoreHumanities11870 Words   |  48 Pageswith a potential to learn language, but he is not able to communicate in a particular language until he learns to use it. So the language of art needs to be learned too. The definition of beautiful is a fluid concept. Each generation of artists explores new frontiers and ads to the existing pool of artistic language. For example, if you were to ask someone from the Renaissance period to appraise Picassos paintings, Picassos works would most likely be too different from their current understandingRead MoreCleanth Brookss Essay Irony as a Principle of Structure9125 Words   |  37 Pagesendured throughout our lives, all that is left to show it is an empty doorway and a leaf, representing just a hole in the wall and no one there. Next, love is discussed. As the grass leans, all of the attentions goes to it and it is given a romantic theme. Just like two people alone on the beach. Finally, he says â€Å"a poem should not mean, but be.† This means that the context should relate to people and cause a reaction, rather than just have people hear it. All in all, the poem should be a meaningfulRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) O rganizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesPearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc

The Truth Behind Marijuana Legalization - 1462 Words

The Truth Behind Marijuana Marijuana is arguably the most controversial drug in history. In general, when someone hears the word â€Å"drugs† they think of a terrible substance that will destroy the human body. However bringing up marijuana, many people think of different things. Some think of a degenerate hippie, but many Americans simply do not know what to think, and bringing up the legalization of the substance is even more controversial. There is a large group of people that believe the legalization of marijuana is pointless and only serves the purpose of making people unhealthy, but at the same time there are many that believe its legalization will solve many problems in America. Marijuana should be a legal, regulated drug because of its long history, the United States growing economic crisis, and the strong medical purpose it has. Marijuana has been poorly represented in our history, even though it has been used for centuries. The earliest traces of its use dated back to 4500 years ago. It has al so been very prominent in general American history, â€Å"Some colonies even made hemp cultivation compulsory, calling its production necessary for the ‘wealth and protection of the country’.† (Marijuana Use Should Be Decriminalized.) This shows the positive effect that marijuana had on the early development of our country. Now this leads many people to the question, â€Å"If marijuana was so great then why was it made illegal?† The answer to this question is that it began to becomeShow MoreRelatedThere is a salient and continuous negative stigma concerning the legalization of marijuana for1100 Words   |  5 Pagesconcerning the legalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes. The pathology that arises from this issue is a subjective matter, highly provocative because those who oppose and those who endorse present rhetoric in a very polarized manner. Like many in the medical marijuana community â€Å"†¦People start out a skeptic intent on research ing marijuana’s harms.† (Flatow, 2014) It seems that there is a preponderance of people who have a proclivity to naturally oppose the legalization of marijuana, because thereRead MoreThe Truth About Marijuana Legalization1539 Words   |  7 PagesNick Foley English 101 Professor Burch December 12, 2014 The Truth About Marijuana Ever since 1930 marijuana has been an illegal drug in the United States. Somehow even though it is illegal, it is the countries number one cash crop with the most margin for profit. Users of cannabis are not the only supporters of the legalization of marijuana, many people who do not use the drug are supportive due to the fact that they know that the prohibition of it does more harm than good. They also can see thatRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1208 Words   |  5 Pagesknown as marijuana, and by various other names is a composition of the cannabis plant intended for utilization as a psychoactive medication and physiological effects. People usually think that marijuana is unhealthy drug that needs to be avoided, but is it harmful than alcohol and tobacco? In modern days, cannabis is used as a recreational or medical drug, depending on the laws provided by different states in the USA. Although marijuana faces a strong opposition, a force for its legalization is extendingRead MoreThe Legalization Of Marijuana Should Not Be Beneficial1240 Words   |  5 PagesThe legalization of marijuana is such a growing debate in the United States, whether it’s on television, in the classroom, or in your own kitchen; you may find yourself debating about it with someone. You are either for it, against it, or indifferent. Either way you still have an opinion of some sort about the legalization of marijuana. Christopher Beach and William Bennett are no different. The release of their article on called â€Å"Legalize Juggernaut† on WeeklyStandard.com timing is perfect sinceRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1342 Words   |  6 PagesMarijuana has earned itself a terrible name over the years. This plant has a long history with humans, from early medical uses to spiritual and even recreational use. In recent years, many states have seen the legalization of marijuana for medical uses. Most large scale experiments have been hindered because of the difficul ty of getting experiments involving marijuana approved. Despite this roadblock for the research of marijuana, surveys and observations of the medical use of marijuana show thatRead MoreSome Truths about Marijuana Essay860 Words   |  4 PagesMarijuana, a plant that humans have used for thousands of years, grows ever closer to decriminalization and legalization around the country. Now that states like Washington and Colorado have legalized the recreational use of Marijuana, the opposition proclaims that usage of this plant will lead to harder drugs. This claim simply isn’t true and studies done by numerous organizations discredit the gateway drug theorem. Marijuana affects psychomotor skills because of the chemical tetrahydrocannabinolRead MoreShould Drugs be Legalized?1187 Words   |  5 PagesPolice also must abide by the fourth amendment of no illegal search and seizure, but those against legalization believe that under circumstance that since drugs such as marijuana â⠂¬Å"has no medical use and does more harm to the body† The legalization of drugs in the United States would benefit society. The three areas of society that would most likely benefit from the legalization of drugs are the economy, law enforcement, and the reduction of organized crime. If drugs were toRead MoreEffects Of Amendment 2 On The State Florida972 Words   |  4 Pagesand the politicians used smooth talking fallacies to blind side the voters. It is time to see the holes in their stance on medical marijuana. â€Å"The Smokescreen† as defined by the author Joe Cardona from the Miami Herald, is the lack of liability Amendment 2 brought to the table when it hit the polls in October. His meaning behind this is because a medical marijuana user would not be receiving a prescription from a trained medical physician. Instead, they would be receiving a referral for a licenseRead MoreThe Use Of Marijuana For Medicinal Purposes1345 Words   |  6 Pagesthey say no, maybe they smoke every day, maybe they never will, or maybe they have to if they want to live. Adolescents and adults have access to marijuana as it is easily available behind the scenes these days and it’s about time everybody knows the truth about the uses, effects, purposes, and cures about the devil’s harvest- Marijuana. The use of Marijuana for Medicinal Purposes is illegal due to its classification as an illicit drug, but there are some issues that have been established stating andRead MoreThe Legalizing Marij uana Debate Essay979 Words   |  4 Pagesof a cell-phone. Therefore, the government does not need to add marijuana as an additional dangerous influence for drivers. Moreover, once society compromises sanctioning a recognized drug, what will stop the general public from legalizing far more serious drugs such as cocaine or heroin? Say no to legalizing marijuana, and keep the United States safe. The reason that the government can not audit broad distribution of marijuana, is because it has a, strenuous time as it is vigilantly monitoring

Basic Contraction of Aircraft free essay sample

Naval aircraft are built to meet certain specified requirements. These requirements must be selected so they can be built into one aircraft. It is not possible for one aircraft to possess all characteristics; just as it isnt possible for an aircraft to have the comfort of a passenger transport and the maneuverability of a fighter. The type and class of the aircraft determine how strong it must be built. A Navy fighter must be fast, maneuverable, and equipped for attack and defense. To meet these requirements, the aircraft is highly powered and has a very strong structure. The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of the following five major units: 1. Fuselage 2. Wings 3. Stabilizers 4. Flight controls surfaces 5. Landing gear A rotary-wing aircraft consists of the following four major units: 1. Fuselage 2. Landing gear 3. Main rotor assembly 4. Tail rotor assembly You need to be familiar with the terms used for aircraft construction to work in an aviation rating. STRUCTURAL STRESS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the five basic stresses acting on an aircraft. The primary factors to consider in aircraft structures are strength, weight, and reliability. These factors determine the requirements to be met by any material used to construct or repair the aircraft. Airframes must be strong and light in weight. An aircraft built so heavy that it couldnt support more than a few hundred pounds of additional weight would be Tension (fig. 4-1, view A) is defined as pull. It is the stress of stretching an object or pulling at its ends. Tension is the resistance to pulling apart or stretching produced by two forces pulling in opposite directions along the same straight line. For example, an elevator control cable is in additional tension when the pilot moves the control column. COMPRESSION If forces acting on an aircraft move toward each other to squeeze the material, the stress is called compression. Compression (fig. 4-1, view B) is the opposite of tension. Tension is pull, and compression is push. Compression is the resistance to crushing produced by two forces pushing toward each other in the same straight line. For example, when an airplane is on the ground, the landing gear struts are under a constant compression stress. useless. All materials used to construct an aircraft must be reliable. Reliability minimizes the possibility of dangerous and unexpected failures. Many forces and structural stresses act on an aircraft when it is flying and when it is static. When it is static, the force of gravity produces weight, which is supported by the landing gear. The landing gear absorbs the forces imposed on the aircraft by takeoffs and landings. During flight, any maneuver that causes acceleration or deceleration increases the forces and stresses on the wings and fuselage. Stresses on the wings, fuselage, and landing gear of aircraft are tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion. These stresses are absorbed by each component of the wing structure and transmitted to the fuselage structure. The empennage (tail section) absorbs the same stresses and transmits them to the fuselage. These stresses are known as loads, and the study of loads is called a stress analysis. Stresses are analyzed and considered when an aircraft is designed. The stresses acting on an aircraft are shown in figure 4-1. TENSION 4-1 Figure 4-1. —Five stresses acting on an aircraft. SHEAR Cutting a piece of paper with scissors is an example of a shearing action. In an aircraft structure, shear (fig. -1, view D) is a stress exerted when two pieces of fastened material tend to separate. Shear stress is the outcome of sliding one part over the other in opposite directions. The rivets and bolts of an aircraft experience both shear and tension stresses. BENDING Bending (fig. 4-1, view E) is a combination of tension and compression. For example, when bending a piece of tubing, the upper portion stretches (tension) and the lower portion crushes together (compression). The wing spars of an aircraft in flight are subject to bending stresses. TORSION Torsional (fig. -1, view C) stresses result from a twisting force. When you wring out a chamois skin, you are putting it under torsion. Torsion is produced in an engine crankshaft while the engine is running. Forces that produce torsional stress also produce torque. VARYING STRESS All structural members of an aircraft are subject to one or more stresses. Sometimes a structural member has alternate stresses; for example, it is under compression one instant and under tension the next. The strength of aircraft materials must be great enough to withstand maximum force of varying stresses. SPECIFIC ACTION OF STRESSES You need to understand the stresses encountered on the main parts of an aircraft. A knowledge of the basic stresses on aircraft structures will help you understand why aircraft are built the way they are. The fuselage of an aircraft is subject the fives types of stress—torsion, bending, tension, shear, and compression. Torsional stress in a fuselage is created in several ways. For example, torsional stress is encountered in engine torque on turboprop aircraft. Engine torque tends to rotate the aircraft in the direction opposite to the direction the propeller is turning. This force creates a torsional stress in the fuselage. Figure 4-2 shows the effect of the rotating propellers. Also, torsional stress on the fuselage is created by the action of the ailerons when the aircraft is maneuvered. When an aircraft is on the ground, there is a bending force on the fuselage. This force occurs because of the weight of the aircraft. Bending increases when the aircraft makes a carrier landing. This bending action creates a tension stress on the lower skin of the fuselage and a compression stress on the top skin. Bending action is shown in figure 4-3. These stresses are transmitted to the fuselage when the aircraft is in flight. Bending occurs because of the reaction of the airflow against the wings and empennage. When the 4-2 TORSIONAL STRESS PROPELLER ROTATION ANfO4O2 Figure 4-2. —Engine torque creates torsion stress in aircraft fuselages. aircraft is in flight, lift forces act upward against the wings, tending to bend them upward. The wings are prevented from folding over the fuselage by the resisting strength of the wing structure. The bending action creates a tension stress on the bottom of the wings and a compression stress on the top of the wings. Q4-1. The resistance to pulling apart or stretching produced by two forces pulling in opposite directions along the same straight lines is defined by what term? Q4-2. The resistance to crushing produced by two forces pushing toward each other in the same straight line is defined by what term? Q4-3. Define the term shear as it relates to an aircraft structure. Q4-4. Define the term bending. Q4-5. Define the term torsion. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the various types of metallic and nonmetallic materials used in aircraft construction. An aircraft must be constructed of materials that are both light and strong. Early aircraft were made of wood. Lightweight metal alloys with a strength greater than wood were developed and used on later aircraft. Materials currently used in aircraft construction are classified as either metallic materials or nonmetallic materials. COMPRE SSION TENSION ANf0403 Figure 4-3. —Bending action occurring during carrier landing. 4-3 METALLIC MATERIALS The most common metals used in aircraft construction are aluminum, magnesium, titanium, steel, and their alloys. Alloys An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The metal present in the alloy in the largest amount is called the base metal. All other metals added to the base metal are called alloying elements. Adding the alloying elements may result in a change in the properties of the base metal. For example, pure aluminum is relatively soft and weak. However, adding small amounts or copper, manganese, and magnesium will increase aluminums strength many times. Heat treatment can increase or decrease an alloys strength and hardness. Alloys are important to the aircraft industry. They provide materials with properties that pure metals do not possess. Aluminum Aluminum alloys are widely used in modern aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys are valuable because they have a high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminum alloys are corrosion resistant and comparatively easy to fabricate. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its lightweight. Magnesium Magnesium is the worlds lightest structural metal. It is a silvery-white material that weighs two-thirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium is used to make helicopters. Magnesiums low resistance to corrosion has limited its use in conventional aircraft. Titanium Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosionresistant metal. Recent developments make titanium ideal for applications where aluminum alloys are too weak and stainless steel is too heavy. Additionally, titanium is unaffected by long exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere. Steel Alloys Alloy steels used in aircraft construction have great strength, more so than other fields of engineering would require. These materials must withstand the forces that occur on todays modern aircraft. These steels contain small percentages of carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum. High-tensile steels will stand stress of 50 to 150 tons per square inch without failing. Such steels are made into tubes, rods, and wires. Another type of steel used extensively is stainless steel. Stainless steel resists corrosion and is particularly valuable for use in or near water. NONMETALLIC MATERIALS In addition to metals, various types of plastic materials are found in aircraft construction. Some of these plastics include transparent plastic, reinforced plastic, composite, and carbon-fiber materials. Transparent Plastic Transparent plastic is used in canopies, windshields, and other transparent enclosures. You need to handle transparent plastic surfaces carefully because they are relatively soft and scratch easily. At approximately 225 °F, transparent plastic becomes soft and pliable. Reinforced Plastic Reinforced plastic is used in the construction of radomes, wingtips, stabilizer tips, antenna covers, and flight controls. Reinforced plastic has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is resistant to mildew and rot. Because it is easy to fabricate, it is equally suitable for other parts of the aircraft. Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material (fig. 4-4). It is made up of two outer facings and a center layer. The facings are made up of several layers of glass cloth, bonded together with a liquid resin. The core material (center layer) consists of a honeycomb HONEYCOMB CORE FACINGS Anf0404 (MULTIPLE LAYERS OF GLASS CLOTH) Figure 4-4. —Reinforced plastic. 4-4 structure made of glass cloth. Reinforced plastic is fabricated into a variety of cell sizes. Composite and Carbon Fiber Materials High-performance aircraft require an extra high strength-to-weight ratio material. Fabrication of composite materials satisfies this special requirement. Composite materials are constructed by using several layers of bonding materials (graphite epoxy or boron epoxy). These materials are mechanically fastened to conventional substructures. Another type of composite construction consists of thin graphite epoxy skins bonded to an aluminum honeycomb core. Carbon fiber is extremely strong, thin fiber made by heating synthetic fibers, such as rayon, until charred, and then layering in cross sections. Q4-6. Materials currently used in aircraft construction are classified as what type of materials? Q4-7. What are the most common metallic materials used in aircraft construction? Q4-8. What are the nonmetallic materials used in aircraft construction? FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the construction features of the fixed-wing aircraft and identify the primary, secondary, and auxiliary flight control surfaces. The principal structural units of a fixed-wing aircraft are the fuselage, wings, stabilizers, flight control surfaces, and landing gear. Figure 4-5 shows these units of a naval aircraft. NOTE: The terms left or right used in relation to any of the structural units refer to the right or left hand of the pilot seated in the cockpit. FUSELAGE The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories. The power plant, wings, stabilizers, and landing gear are attached to it. VERTICAL STABILIZER (FIN) AILERON FLAP LEADING EDGE OF WING HORIZONTAL STABILIZER ENGINE EXHAUST RUDDER ENGINE EXHAUST ELEVATOR CANOPY COCKPIT WING RADOME NOSE LANDING GEAR ENGINE AIR INLET FAIRING ENGINE NACELLE MAIN LANDING GEAR ANf0405 Figure 4-5. —Principal structural units on an F-14 aircraft. 4-5 There are two general types of fuselage construction—welded steel truss and monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some helicopters. The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to carry various loads. The monocoque design may be divided into three classes—monocoque, semimonocoque, and reinforced shell.  · The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within limits. Semimonocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque construction. See figure 4-6. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semimonocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members. The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members. Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the three classes. Most are considered to be of semimonocoque-type construction. The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminum alloy, although steel and titanium are found in high-temperature areas. Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons. The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated loads. These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings and stabilizers. The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the stringers. All of these join together to form a rigid fuselage framework. Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the fuselage. The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members and carries part of the load. The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load carried and the stresses sustained at particular location.  ·  · ANf0406 Figure 4-6. —Semimonocoque fuselage construction. 4-6 There are a number of advantages in using the semimonocoque fuselage.  · The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and construction of a streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and rigidity of the structure. The main advantage of the semimonocoque construction is that it depends on many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of its stressed skin construction, a WS 400 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 semimonocoque fuselage can withstand damage and still be strong enough to hold together. Points on the fuselage are located by station numbers. Station 0 is usually located at or near the nose of the aircraft. The other stations are located at measured distances (in inches) aft of station 0. A typical station diagram is shown in figure 4-7. On this particular aircraft, fuselage station (FS) 0 is located 93. inches forward of the nose.  · AIRCRAFT STATIONS FS FUSELAGE STATION WS WING STATION 20o WING UNSWEPT 75o WING OVERSWEPT 68o WING SWEPT STATIC GROUND LINE 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 ARRESTING HOOK FULLY EXTENDED 850 ANfO407 Figure 4-7. —Fuselage station diagram of an F-14 aircraft. 4-7 WINGS Wings develop the major portion of the lift of a heavier-than-air aircraft. Wing structures carry some of the heavier loads found in the aircraft structure. The particular design of a wing depends on many factors, such as the size, weight, speed, rate of climb, and use of the aircraft. The wing must be constructed so that it holds its aerodynamics shape under the extreme stresses of combat maneuvers or wing loading. Wing construction is similar in most modern aircraft. In its simplest form, the wing is a framework made up of spars and ribs and covered with metal. The construction of an aircraft wing is shown in figure 4-8. Spars are the main structural members of the wing. They extend from the fuselage to the tip of the wing. All the load carried by the wing is taken up by the spars. The spars are designed to have great bending strength. Ribs give the wing section its shape, and they transmit the air load from the wing covering to the spars. Ribs extend from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing. In addition to the main spars, some wings have a false spar to support the ailerons and flaps. Most aircraft wings have a removable tip, which streamlines the outer end of the wing. Most Navy aircraft are designed with a wing referred to as a wet wing. This term describes the wing that is constructed so it can be used as a fuel cell. The wet wing is sealed with a fuel-resistant compound as it is built. The wing holds fuel without the usual rubber cells or tanks. The wings of most naval aircraft are of all metal, full cantilever construction. Often, they may be folded for carrier use. A full cantilever wing structure is very strong. The wing can be fastened to the fuselage without the use of external bracing, such as wires or struts. A complete wing assembly consists of the surface providing lift for the support of the aircraft. It also provides the necessary flight control surfaces. NOTE: The flight control surfaces on a simple wing may include only ailerons and trailing edge flaps. The more complex aircraft may have a variety of devices, such as leading edge flaps, slats, spoilers, and speed brakes. Various points on the wing are located by wing station numbers (fig. 4-7). Wing station (WS) 0 is located at the centerline of the fuselage, and all wing stations are measured (right or left) from this point (in inches). STABILIZERS The stabilizing surfaces of an aircraft consist of vertical and horizontal airfoils. They are called the TRAILING EDGE LEADING EDGE RIBS SPARS ANf0408 Figure 4-8. —Two-spar wing construction. 4-8 vertical stabilizer (or fin) and horizontal stabilizer. These two airfoils, along with the rudder and elevators, form the tail section. For inspection and maintenance purposes, the entire tail section is considered a single unit called the empennage. The main purpose of stabilizers is to keep the aircraft in straight-and-level flight. The vertical stabilizer maintains the stability of he aircraft about its vertical axis (fig. 4-9). This is known as directional stability. The vertical stabilizer usually serves as the base to which the rudder is attached. The horizontal stabilizer provides stability of the aircraft about its lateral axis. This is known as longitudinal stability. The horizontal stabilizer usually serves as the base to which the elevators are attached. On many newer, high-performance aircraft, the entire vertical and/or horizontal stabilizer is a movable airfoil. Without the movable airfoil, the flight control surfaces would lose their effectiveness at extremely high altitudes. Stabilizer construction is similar to wing construction. For greater strength, especially in the thinner airfoil sections typical of trailing edges, a honeycomb-type construction is used. Some larger carrier-type aircraft have vertical stabilizers that are folded hydraulically to aid aircraft movement aboard aircraft carriers. FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES Flight control surfaces are hinged (movable) airfoils designed to change the attitude of the aircraft during flight. These surfaces are divided into three groups—primary, secondary, and auxiliary. Primary Group The primary group of flight control surfaces includes ailerons, elevators, and rudders. The ailerons attach to the trailing edge of the wings. They control the rolling (or banking) motion of the aircraft. This action is known as longitudinal control. The elevators are attached to the horizontal stabilizer and control the climb or descent (pitching motion) of the aircraft. This action is known as lateral control. The rudder is attached to the vertical stabilizer. It determines the horizontal flight (turning or yawing motion) of the aircraft. This action is known as directional control. The ailerons and elevators are operated from the cockpit by a control stick on single-engine aircraft. A yoke and wheel assembly operates the ailerons and elevators on multiengine aircraft, such as transport and VERTICAL AXIS LATERAL AXIS ROLL LONGITUDINAL AXIS YAW PITCH ANf0409 Figure 4-9. —Axes and fundamental movements of the aircraft. 4-9 patrol aircraft. The rudder is operated by foot pedals on all types of aircraft. Secondary Group The secondary group includes the trim tabs and spring tabs. Trim tabs are small airfoils recessed into the trailing edges of the primary control surface. Each trim tab hinges to its parent primary control surface, but operates by an independent control. Trim tabs let the pilot trim out an unbalanced condition without exerting pressure on the primary controls. Spring tabs are similar in appearance to trim tabs but serve an entirely different purpose. Spring tabs are used for the same purpose as hydraulic actuators. They aid the pilot in moving a larger control surface, such as the ailerons and elevators. Auxiliary Group The auxiliary group includes the wing flaps, spoilers, speed brakes, and slats. WING FLAPS. —Wing flaps give the aircraft extra lift. Their purpose is to reduce the landing speed. Reducing the landing speed shortens the length of the landing rollout. Flaps help the pilot land in small or obstructed areas by increasing the glide angle without greatly increasing the approach speed. The use of flaps during takeoff serves to reduce the length of the takeoff run. Some flaps hinge to the lower trailing edges of the wings inboard of the ailerons. Leading edge flaps are used on the F-14 Tomcat and F/A-18 Hornet. Four types of flaps are shown in figure 4-10. The plain flap forms the trailing edge of the airfoil when the flap is in the up position. In the split flap, the trailing edge of the airfoil is split, and the lower half is hinged and lowers to form the flap. The fowler flap operates on rollers and tracks, causing the lower surface of the wing to roll out and then extend downward. The leading edge flap operates like the plain flap. It is hinged on the bottom side. When actuated, the leading edge of the wing actually extends in a downward direction to increase the camber of the wing. Landing flaps are used in conjunction with other types of flaps. SPOILERS. —Spoilers are used to decrease wing lift. The specific design, function, and use vary with different aircraft. On some aircraft, the spoilers are long narrow surfaces, hinged at their leading edge to the upper surfaces of the wings. In the retracted position, PLAIN FLAP SPLIT FLAP LEADING EDGE FLAP FOWLER FLAP ANf0410 Figure 4-10. —Types of flaps. they are flush with the wing skin. In the raised position, they greatly reduce wing lift by destroying the smooth flow of air over the wing surface. SPEED BRAKES. Speed brakes are movable control surfaces used for reducing the speed of the aircraft. Some manufacturers refer to them as dive brakes; others refer to them as dive flaps. On some aircraft, theyre hinged to the sides or bottom of the fuselage. Regardless of their location, speed brakes serve the same purpose—to keep the airspeed from building too high when the aircraft dives. Speed brak es slow the aircrafts speed before it lands. SLATS. —Slats are movable control surfaces that attach to the leading edge of the wing. When the slat is retracted, it forms the leading edge of the wing. When the slat is open (extended forward), a slot is created between the slat and the wing leading edge. High-energy air is introduced into the boundary layer over the top of the wing. At low airspeeds, this action improves the lateral control handling characteristics. This allows the aircraft to be controlled at airspeeds below normal landing speed. The high-energy air that flows over the top of the wing is known as boundary layer control air. Boundary layer control is intended primarily for use during operations from carriers. Boundary layer control air aids in catapult takeoffs and arrested landings. Boundary control air can also be accomplished by directing high-pressure engine bleed air across the top of the wing or flap surface. 4-10 ANf0411 Figure 4-11. —Push-pull tube assembly. On all high-performance aircraft, the control surfaces have great pressure exerted on them. At high airspeed, it is physically impossible for the pilot to move the controls manually. As a result, power-operated control mechanisms are used. In a power-operated system, a hydraulic actuator (cylinder) is located within the linkage to assist the pilot in moving the control surface. A typical flight control mechanism is shown in figure 4-12. This is the elevator control of a lightweight trainer-type aircraft. It consists of a combination of push-pull tubes and cables. The control sticks in the system shown in figure 4-12 are connected to the forward sector by push-pull tubes. The forward sector is connected to the aft (rear ) sector by means of cable assemblies. The aft sector is connected to the flight control by another push-pull tube assembly. LANDING GEAR Before World War II, aircraft were made with their main landing gear located behind the center of gravity. An auxiliary gear under the fuselage nose was added. This arrangement became known as the tricycle type of landing gear. Nearly all present-day Navy aircraft are equipped with tricycle landing gear. The tricycle gear has the following advantages over older landing gear:  ·  ·  ·  · More stable in motion on the ground Maintains the fuselage in a level position Increases the pilots visibility and control Makes landing easier, especially in cross winds FLIGHT CONTROL MECHANISMS The term flight control refers to the linkage that connects the control(s) in the cockpit with the flight control surfaces. There are several types of flight controls in naval aircraft; some are manually operated while others are power operated. Manually operated flight control mechanisms are further divided into three groups—cable operated, push-pull tube operated, and torque tube operated. Some systems may combine two or more of these types. In the manually operated cable system, cables are connected from the control in the cockpit to a bell crank or sector. The bell crank is connected to the control surface. Movement of the cockpit controls transfers force through the cable to the bell crank, which moves the control surface. In a push-pull tube system, metal push-pull tubes (or rods) are used as a substitute for the cables (fig. 4-11). Push-pull tubes get their name from the way they transmit force. In the torque tube system, metal tubes (rods) with gears at the ends of the tubes are used. Motion is transmitted by rotating the tubes and gears. ANf0412 Figure 4-12. —Typical flight control mechanism. 4-11 ACTUATING CYLINDER DOWNLOCK CYLINDER TO LEFT MAIN GEAR DOOR CYLINDER FROM COMBINED SYSTEM LANDING GEAR SELECTOR VALVE DOOR AND DOORLATCH CYLINDERS RETRACTING CYLINDER UPLOCK CYLINDER DOWNLOCK CYLINDER MAIN GEAR NOSE GEAR NOTE TIMER VALVES ARE USED IN MAIN GEAR SYSTEM TO CONTROL PROPER SEQUENCE. Anf0413 Figure 4-13. —Typical landing gear system. The landing gear system (fig. 4-13) consists of three retractable landing gear assemblies. Each main landing gear has a conventional air-oil shock strut, a wheel brake assembly, and a wheel and tire assembly. The nose landing gear has a conventional air-oil shock strut, a shimmy damper, and a wheel and tire assembly. The shock strut is designed to absorb the shock that would otherwise be transmitted to the airframe during landing, taxiing, and takeoff. The air-oil strut is used on all naval aircraft. This type of strut has two telescoping cylinders filled with hydraulic fluid and compressed air or nitrogen. Figure 4-14 shows the internal construction of one type of air-oil shock strut. The main landing gear is equipped with brakes for stopping the aircraft and assisting the pilot in steering the aircraft on the ground. The nose gear of most aircraft can be steered from the cockpit. This provides greater ease and safety on the runway when landing and taking off and on the taxiway in taxiing. ARRESTING GEAR A carrier-type aircraft is equipped with an arresting hook for stopping the aircraft when it lands on the carrier. The arresting gear has an extendible hook and the mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic equipment necessary for hook operation. See figure 4-15. The arresting hook on most aircraft releases mechanically, lowers pneumatically, and raises hydraulically. The hook hinges from the structure under the rear of the aircraft. A snubber meters hydraulic fluid and works in conjunction with nitrogen pressure. The AIR VALVE OUTER CYLINDER METERING PIN ORIFICE PLATE ORIFICE TORQUE ARMS WHEEL AXLE INNER CYLINDER (PISTON) TOWING EYE ANf0414 Figure 4-14. —Internal construction of a shock strut. 4-12 Q4-11. Q4-12. Q4-13. Q4-14. Q4-15. Q4-16. In an aircraft, what are the main structural members of the wing? What does the term â€Å"wet wing† mean? The stabilizing surfaces of an aircraft consist of what two airfoils? What are the three groups of flight control surfaces? What is the purpose of speed brakes on an aircraft? Most present-day Navy aircraft are equipped with what type of landing gear? ROTARY-WING AIRCRAFT ANf0415 LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the construction features of the rotary-wing aircraft and recognize the fundamental differences between rotary-wing and fixed-wing aircraft. Within the past 20 years, helicopters have become a reality, and are found throughout the world. They perform countless tasks suited to their unique capabilities. A helicopter has one or more power-driven horizontal airscrews (rotors) to develop lift and propulsion. If a single main rotor is used, it is necessary to employ a means to counteract torque. If more than one main rotor (or tandem) is used, torque is eliminated by turning each main rotor in opposite directions. The fundamental advantage the helicopter has over fixed-wing aircraft is that lift and control are independent of forward speed. A helicopter can fly forward, backward, or sideways, or it can remain in stationary flight (hover) above the ground. No runway is required for a helicopter to take off or land. For example, the roof of an office building is an adequate landing area. The helicopter is considered a safe aircraft because the takeoff and landing speed is zero, and it has autorotational capabilities. This allows a controlled descent with rotors turning in case of engine failure in flight. FUSELAGE Figure 4-15. —Arresting gear installation. snubber holds the hook down and prevents it from bouncing when it strikes the carrier deck. CATAPULT EQUIPMENT Carrier aircraft have built-in equipment for catapulting off the aircraft carrier. Older aircraft had hooks on the airframe that attached to the cable bridle. The bridle hooks the aircraft to the ships catapult. Newer aircraft have a launch bar built into the nose landing gear assembly. See figure 4-16. The holdback assembly allows the aircraft to be secured to the carrier deck for full-power turnup of the engine prior to takeoff. For nose gear equipment, a track attaches to the deck to guide the nosewheel into position. The track has provisions for attaching the nose gear to the catapult shuttle and for holdback. NOTE: The holdback tension bar separates when the catapult is fired, allowing the aircraft to be launched with the engine at full power. Q4-9. In fuselage construction, what are the three classes of monocoque design? Q4-10. Points on the fuselage are located by what method? Like the fuselage of a fixed-wing aircraft, the helicopter fuselage may be welded truss or some form of monocoque construction. Many Navy helicopters are of the monocoque design. 4-13 FUSELAGE (A) AIRCRAFT CATAPULT BRIDLE HOOKS CATAPULT BRIDLE BRIDLE ARRESTER LANYARD CATAPULT SHUTTLE CABLE GUIDE SLIDE LANYARD CATAPULT TRACK BLAST SCREEN (B) CATAPULT SHUTTLE SLIDE LANYARD CATAPULT BRIDLE BRIDLE CATAPULT ARRESTER PENDANT LANYARD ARRESTER BUNGEE CATAPULT HOLDBACK PENDANT CLEAT LINK TENSION BAR AIRCRAFT CATAPULT HOLDBACK FITTING DECK CLEAT CATAPULT HOLDBACK PENDANT ANf0416 Figure 4-16. —Aircraft catapult equipment. 4-14 A typical Navy helicopter, the H-60, is shown in figure 4-17. Some of its features include a single main rotor, twin engine, tractor-type canted tail rotor, controllable stabilizer, fixed landing gear, rescue hoist, external cargo hook, and weapons pylons. The fuselage consists of the entire airframe, sometimes known as the body group. The body group is an all-metal semimonocoque construction. It consists of an aluminum and titanium skin over a reinforced aluminum frame. LANDING GEAR GROUP The landing gear group includes all the equipment necessary to support the helicopter when it is not in flight. There are several types of landing gear on helicopters—conventional fixed (skid type), retractable, and nonretractable. Main Landing Gear The H-60s nonretracting main landing gear consists of two single axle, air/oil type of shock-strut assemblies that mount to the fuselage. Each is equipped with tubeless tires, hydraulic disc brakes, tie-down ings, drag braces, and safety switches. They are part of the lower end of the shock strut piston. Tail Landing Gear The H-60s tail landing gear is a nonretracting, dual wheel, 360-degree swiveling type. It is equipped with tubeless tires, tie-down ring, shimmy damper, tail-wheel lock, and an air/oil shock-strut, which serves as an aft touchdown point for the pilots to cushi on the landing shock. MAIN ROTOR ASSEMBLY The main rotor (rotor wing) and rotor head (hub assembly) are identical in theory of flight but differ in engineering or design. They are covered here because their functions are closely related. The power plant, transmission, drive-train, hydraulic flight control, and rotor systems all work together. Neither has a function without the other. Rotary Wing The main rotor on the H-60 (fig. 4-17) has four identical wing blades. Other types of helicopters may Anf0417 Figure 4-17. —H-60 helicopter. 4-15 have two, four, five, six, or seven blades. Figure 4-18 shows some typical rotor blades. Rotary-wing blades are made of titanium, aluminum alloys, fiber glass, graphite, honeycomb core, nickel, and steel. Each has a nitrogen-filled, pressurized, hollow internal spar, which runs the length of the blade. The cuff provides the attachment of the blade to the rotor hub. A titanium abrasion strip covers the entire leading edge of the spar from the cuff end to the removable blade tip faring. This extends the life of the rotor blade. The examples shown in figure 4-18 show other features—trim tabs, deicing protection, balance markings, and construction. Main Rotor Head/Hub Assembly The rotor head is fully articulating and is rotated by torque from the engines through the drive train and main gearbox or transmission. The flight controls and hydraulic servos transmit movements to the rotor blades. The principal components of the rotor head are the hub and swashplate assemblies (fig. 4-19). The hub is one piece, made of titanium and sits on top of the rotor mast. Attaching components are the sleeve and spindles, blade fold components, vibration absorber, bearings, blade dampers, pitch change horns, adjustable pitch control rods, blade fold hinges, balance weights, antiflapping and droop stops, and faring. The swashplate consists of a rotating disc (upper), stationary (lower) portion with a scissors and sleeve assembly separated by a bearing. The swashplate is permitted to slide on the main rotor vertical driveshaft and mounts on top the main transmission. The entire assembly can tilt in any direction following the motion of the flight controls. The hydraulic servo cylinders, swashplate, and adjustable pitch control rods permit movement of the DEICE CONNECTION ANTI-CHAFE STRIP ABRASION STRIP TIP CAP BLADE INSPECTION INDICATOR BALANCE STRIP BLADE CUFF TRIM TABS TIP CAP ICE GUARD SPAR ROOT POCKET 17 16 15 14 13 SPAR ABRASION STRIP 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 12 11 10 9 POCKET IDENTIFICATION CUFF 22 21 20 19 18 23 ANf0418 Figure 4-18. —Types of main rotor blades. -16 SPINDLE ASSEMBLY FAIRING BIFILAR FOLD HINGE ROTOR HUB PITCH LOCK ACTUATOR DAMPER BLADE LOCKPIN PULLERS ROTOR HEAD BALANCE WEIGHTS BLADE FOLD ACTUATOR LOWER PRESSURE PLATE PITCH CHANGE HORN ROTATING SCISSORS PITCH CONTROL ROD SWASHPLATE ANf0119 Figure 4-19. —Main rotor head/hub assembly. flight controls to be transmitted to the rotary-wing blades. The sleeve an d spindle and blade dampers allow limited movement of the blades in relation to the hub. These movements are known as lead, lag, and flap.  · Lead occurs during slowing of the drive mechanism when the blades have a tendency to remain in motion. Lag is the opposite of lead and occurs during acceleration when the blade has been at rest and tends to remain at rest.  · Flap is the tendency of the blade to rise with high-lift demands as it tries to screw itself upward into the air. Antiflapping stops and droop stops restrict flapping and conning motion of the rotary-wing head and blades at low rotor rpm when slowing or stopping. TAIL ROTOR GROUP The directional control and antitorque action of the helicopter is provided by the tail rotor group. See  · 4-17 figure 4-20. These components are similar in function to the main rotor. Pylon The pylon, shown in figure 4-20, attaches on the aircraft to the main fuselage by hinge fittings. These hinge fittings serve as the pivot point for the pylon to fold along the fuselage. Folding the pylon reduces the overall length of the helicopter, which helps for confined shipboard handling. The pylon houses the intermediate and tail rotor gearboxes, tail rotor drive shaft, cover, tail bumper, position/anticollision lights, hydraulic servos, flight control push-pull tubes/cables/bell cranks, stabilizer/ elevator flight control surface, some antennas, and rotary rudder assembly. Rotary Rudder Head The rudder head can be located on either side of the pylon, depending on the type of aircraft, and includes such items as the hub, spindle, pitch control beam, pitch change links, bearings, and tail rotor blades. Change in blade pitch is accomplished through the pitch change shaft that moves through the horizontal shaft of the tail gearbox, which drives the rotary rudder assembly. As the shaft moves inward toward the tail gearbox, pitch of the blade is decreased. As the shaft moves outward from the tail gearbox, pitch of the blade is increased. The pitch control beam is connected by links to the forked brackets on the blade sleeves. Rotary Rudder Blades Like the blades on a main rotor head, the blades found on a rotary rudder head may differ, depending on the type of aircraft. Tail rotor blades may consist of the following components:  ·  ·  · Aluminum alloy, graphite composite, or titanium spar Aluminum pocket and skin with honeycomb core or cross-ply fiber glass exterior Aluminum or graphite composite tip cap ROTARY RUDDER BLADE PITCH CHANGE LINK SPINDLE ROTARY RUDDER HUB TAIL ROTOR GEAR BOX PITCH CONTROL BEAM PYLON ANf0420 Figure 4-20. —Tail rotor group. 4-18  ·  · Aluminum trailing edge cap Aluminum or polyurethane and nickel abrasion leading edge strip  ·  ·  ·  ·  · A reservoir to hold a supply of hydraulic fluid A pump to provide a flow of fluid Tubing to transmit the fluid A selector valve to direct the flow of fluid An actuating unit to convert the fluid pressure into useful work Additionally, rotary rudder blades may have deicing provisions, such as electrothermal blankets that are bonded into the blades leading edge. or a neoprene anti-icing guard embedded with electrical heating elements. Q4-17. What is the main advantage of rotary-wing aircraft over fixed-wing aircraft? Q4-18. Q4-19. What are the three types of landing gear used on helicopters? The directional control and antitorque action of the helicopter is provided by what group? A simple system using these essential units is shown in figure 4-21. You can trace the flow of fluid from the reservoir through the pump to the selector valve. In figure 4-21, the flow of fluid created by the pump flows through the valve to the right end of the actuating cylinder. Fluid pressure forces the piston to the left. At the same time, the fluid that is on the left of he piston is forced out. It goes up through the selector valve and back to the reservoir through the return line. When the selector valve is moved to the position indicated by the dotted lines, the fluid from the pump flows to the left side of the actuating cylinder. Movement of the piston can be stopped at any time simply by moving the selector valve to neutral. When the selector valve is in this position, all four ports are closed, and pressure is trapped in both working lines. AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the components of aircraft hydraulic systems and recognize their functions. The aircraft hydraulic systems found on most naval aircraft perform many functions. Some systems operated by hydraulics are flight controls, landing gear, speed brakes, fixed-wing and rotary-wing folding mechanisms, auxiliary systems, and wheel brakes. Hydraulics has many advantages as a power source for operating these units on aircraft.  · Hydraulics combine the advantages of lightweight, ease of installation, simplification of inspection, and minimum maintenance requirements. Hydraulics operation is almost 100-percent efficient, with only a negligible loss due to fluid friction. RESERVOIR  · PRESSURE LINE However, there are some disadvantages to using hydraulics.  · The possibility of leakage, both internal and external, may cause the complete system to become inoperative. Contamination by foreign matter in the system can cause malfunction of any unit. Cleanliness in hydraulics cannot be overemphasized. HAND PUMP RETURN LINE SELECTOR VALVE IN DOWN POSITION SELECTOR VALVE IN UP POSITION WORKING LINES  · COMPONENTS OF A BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEM Basically, any hydraulic system contains the following units: ANF0421 ACTUATING UNIT Figure 4-21. Basic hydraulic system, hand pump operated. 4-19 Figure 4-22 shows a basic system with the addition of a power-driven pump and other essential components. These components are the filter, pressure regulator, accumulator, pressure gauge, relief valve, and two check valves. The function of these components is described below. The filter (fig. 4-22) removes foreign particles from the fluid, preventing moisture, dust, grit, and other undesirable matter from entering the system. The pressure regulator (fig. 4-22) unloads or relieves the power-driven pump when the desired pressure in the system is reached. Therefore, it is often referred to as an unloading valve. With none of the actuating units operating, the pressure in the line between the pump and selector valve builds up to the desired point. A valve in the pressure regulator automatically opens and fluid is bypassed back to the reservoir. (The bypass line is shown in figure 4-22, leading from the pressure regulator to the return line. ) NOTE: Many aircraft hydraulic systems do not use a pressure regulator. These systems use a pump that automatically adjusts to supply the proper volume of fluid as needed. The accumulator serves a twofold purpose. 1. It serves as a cushion or shock absorber by maintaining an even pressure in the system. 2. It stores enough fluid under pressure to provide for emergency operation of certain actuating units. The accumulator is designed with a compressed-air chamber separated from the fluid by a flexible diaphragm, or a removable piston. The pressure gauge indicates the amount of pressure in the system. The relief valve is a safety valve installed in the system. When fluid is bypassed through the valve to the return line, it returns to the reservoir. This action prevents excessive pressure in the system. Check valves allow the flow of fluid in one direction only. There are numerous check valves installed at various points in the lines of all aircraft hydraulic systems. A careful study of figure 4-22 shows why the two check valves are necessary in this system. One check valve prevents power pump pressure from entering the hand-pump line. The other valve prevents hand-pump pressure from being directed to the accumulator. HYDRAULIC CONTAMINATION Hydraulic contamination is defined as foreign material in the hydraulic system of an aircraft. Foreign material might be grit, sand, dirt, dust, rust, water, or any other substance that is not soluble in the hydraulic fluid. There are two basic ways to contaminate a hydraulic system. One is to inject particles, and the other is to intermix fluids, including water. Particle contamination in a system may be self-generated through normal wear of system components. It is the injection of contaminants from outside that usually causes the most trouble. Regardless of its origin, any form of contamination in the hydraulic system will slow performance. In extreme cases, it seriously affects safety. A single grain of sand or grit can cause internal failure of a hydraulic component. Usually, this type of contamination comes from poor servicing and fluid-handling procedures. For this reason, the highest ANf0422 7. Hand pump 1. Reservoir 8. Pressure gauge 2. Power pump 9. Relief valve 3. Filter 10. Selector valve 4. Pressure regulator 11. Actuating unit 5. Accumulator 6. Check valves Figure 4-22. —Basic hydraulic system with addition of power pump. 4-20 level of cleanliness must be maintained when working on hydraulic components. Only approved fill stand units are used to service naval aircraft hydraulic systems. By following a few basic rules, you can service hydraulic systems safely and keep contamination to a minimum.  · Never use fluid that has been left open for an undetermined period of time. Hydraulic fluid that is exposed to air will absorb dust and dirt. Never pour fluid from one container into another. Use only approved servicing units for the specific aircraft. Maintain hydraulic fluid-handling equipment in a high state of cleanliness. Always make sure you use the correct hydraulic fluid. brakes, emergency landing gear extension, emergency flap extension, and for canopy release mechanisms. When the control valve is properly positioned, the compressed air in the storage bottle is routed through the shuttle valve to the actuating cylinder. NOTE: The shuttle valve is a pressure-operated valve that separates the normal hydraulic system from the emergency pneumatic system. When the control handle is returned to the normal position, the air pressure in the lines is vented overboard through the vent port of the control valve. The other type of pneumatic system in use has its own air compressor. It also has other equipment necessary to maintain an adequate supply of compressed air during flight. Most systems of this type must be serviced on the ground prior to flight. The air  ·  ·  ·  · Contamination of the hydraulic system may be caused by wear or failure of hydraulic components and seals. This type of contamination is usually found through filter inspection and fluid analysis. Continued operation of a contaminated system may cause malfunctioning or early failure of hydraulic components. Q4-20. Q4-21. Q4-22. Q4-23. What are two disadvantages of a hydraulic system? On a basic hydraulic system, what is the purpose of the selector valve? On a basic hydraulic system, what is the purpose of the actuating unit? Define hydraulic contamination. PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the components of aircraft pneumatic systems and recognize their functions. There are two types of pneumatic systems currently used in naval aircraft. One type uses storage bottles for an air source, and the other has its own air compressor. Generally, the storage bottle system is used only for emergency operation. See figure 4-23. This system has an air bottle, a control valve in the cockpit for releasing the contents of the cylinders, and a ground charge (filler) valve. The storage bottle must be filled with compressed air or nitrogen prior to flight. Air storage cylinder pneumatic systems are in use for emergency ANf0423 Figure 4-23. —Emergency pneumatic system. 4-21 compressor used in most aircraft is driven by a hydraulic motor. Aircraft that have an air compressor use the compressed air for normal and emergency system operation. Q4-24. What are the two types of pneumatic systems currently used in naval aircraft? SUMMARY In this chapter, you have learned about aircraft construction and the materials used in construction. You have also learned about the features and materials used to absorb stress on both fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft.

Shania Woodard ENGL 1133 Comp ll July 19, 2018 Pro Essays

Shania Woodard ENGL 1133 Comp ll July 19, 2018 Professor Dixon Literary/Critique Essay "Everyday Use" Analysis Essay In the short Film "Everyday Use" by Alice Walker characterize an event of what happen toa family being reunited and how everyone had deal with they own perspective in life during the 20 th century. The story took place in Georgia 1973, where it the summer in the rural country. Mama is the narrator who shown reading a letter from her older daughter Dee, announce upon her arrival for a visit. Once read the letter, "Mama, It Dee, I'm coming back for a visit. I am there in two-day, I'm bringing a Friend!" Her exhilaration launches her into the house. The opening of the story in the film show Mama sitting in her chair in front of her yard comforting her surrounding and herself. The reader noticed Maggie is nervous about the emotional stress and anxiety that will come with Dee's arrival. Walker characterize young frighten daughter who was burn by the fire at a young age and live this low self-esteem simple life. While she gets dress, mama is calling for Maggie to come wait outside with her for Dee arrival. Mama and Maggie have lived in a content, simple, and practical lifestyle where they see they culture and heritage is very valued for the both. Walker characterize a dark color African-American woman who are tame to feel the harass their skin even within they own culture or heritage. This was a time when African-Americans were struggling to express their individual identities in cultural terms. Upon Dee arrival from College, she greets mother with the knowledge she learns of her true African heritage and change her name to "Wangero" as her new African heritage. She seeks to separate herself from the oppressive culture of the dominant majority and reconnect with African roots. She has adopted a name that prove to the culture that she calls oppressive. Dee bring young friend who dress like a Mu slim and greet the saying "Asalamaliskim" which symbolize "Black Power". During rising Action started when they went to go sit down for a meal and noticed Hakim Barba does not eat collard green or pork calling them "unclean." Also, when they start to pray but Dee aka "Wangero" and Hakim Barba does not take part in the prayer meal. Dee's attitude reveals apologetic way which creates a fundamental tension that gradually builds toward the climax. Dee gets excited about the benches, butter churn, dasher and various other objects, which she considers important artifacts, around the house. Dee ask mama can she could have the dasher and butter churn, so she can use it toward material and not everyday use. Dee said to her mother, I can use the churn top as a center piece for the alcove table, and I'll think of something artistic to do with the dasher. She does not realize or acknowledged the fact she takes the items her family need for they everyday use. Dee only see it as a piece of art craft to show where her heritage come from. Walker show a conflict in the ideas of Dee assume to understand the African-American culture. After dinner, Dee look through her mother trunk and find her mother and grandmother that handmade the quilts. Dee said to her mother "Can I have these old quilts?" Dee did not receive the quilts from her mother, as the Mother promised Maggie, she would receive them when she married. As a conflict occur of course, Dee throw a Fit! Mama took back the quilt from Dee and ends up giving it to Maggie. This became the huge turning point because it disrupts the characteristic dynamic of the relationship between all three characters. Maggie learned about their family's history through the quilt makings and learned what her family heritage have contributed over generations. Eventually Maggie was thrilling to see Dee go, and smiled like she never smiled before. In conclusion, Walker short story film Everyday Use give the reader to understand their real heritage. In Everyday use" walker use the quilt as symbol of tradition with many generation been pass down to. In this matter Dee learning about her

Pros Cons of the Death Penalty and Current Status by Country

Pros Cons of the Death Penalty and Current Status by Country Capital punishment also dubbed the death penalty, is the planned taking of a human life by a government in response to a crime committed by that legally convicted person. Passions in the United States are sharply divided and run equally strong among both supporters and protesters of the death penalty. Quotations from Both Sides Arguing against capital punishment, Amnesty International believes: The death penalty is the ultimate denial of human rights. It is the premeditated and cold-blooded killing of a human being by the state in the name of justice. It violates the right to life...It is the ultimate cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment. There can never be any justification for torture or for cruel treatment.​ Arguing for capital punishment, the Clark County, Indiana, prosecuting attorney writes: There are some defendants who have earned the ultimate punishment our society has to offer by committing murder with ​aggravating circumstances present. I believe life is sacred. It cheapens the life of an innocent murder victim to say that society has no right to keep the murderer from ever killing again. In my view, society has not only the right, but the duty to act in self-defense to protect the innocent.​ And Catholic Cardinal Theodore McCarrick, Archbishop of Washington, wrote: The death penalty diminishes all of us, increases disrespect for human life, and offers the tragic illusion that we can teach that killing is wrong by killing. Death Penalty in the United States The death penalty has not always been practiced in the United States, although Time magazine estimated that in this country, more than 15,700 people have been legally executed since 1700. The Depression-era 1930s, which saw a historic peak in executions, was followed by a dramatic decrease in the 1950s and 1960s. No executions occurred in the United States between 1967 and 1976.In 1972, the Supreme Court effectively nullified the death penalty and converted the death sentences of hundreds of death row inmates to life in prison.In 1976, another Supreme Court ruling found capital punishment to be constitutional. Since 1976, almost 1,500 people have been executed in the United States. Latest Developments The vast majority of democratic countries in Europe and Latin America have abolished capital punishment over the last 50 years, but the United States, most democracies in Asia, and almost all totalitarian governments retain it. Crimes that carry the death penalty vary greatly worldwide, from treason and murder to theft. In militaries around the world, courts-martial have sentenced capital punishments also for cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. Per Amnesty Internationals 2017 death penalty annual report, Amnesty International recorded at least  993 executions  in  23 countries  in 2017, down by 4% from 2016 (1,032 executions) and 39% from 2015 (when the organization reported 1,634 executions, the highest number since 1989). However, those statistics do not include China, known as the worlds top executioner, because the use of the death penalty is a state secret. Countries in the table below with a plus sign () indicate that there were executions, but numbers were not received by Amnesty International. Executions in 2017, by Country China: Iran: 507Saudi Arabia: 146Iraq: 125Pakistan: 60Egypt: 35Somalia: 24United States: 23Jordan: 15Vietnam: North Korea: All other: 58Source: Amnesty International As of 2018, capital punishment in the United States is officially sanctioned by 31 states, as well as by the federal government. Each state with legalized capital punishment has different laws regarding its methods, age limits, and crimes that qualify. From 1976 through October 2018, 1,483 felons were executed in the United States, distributed among the states as follows: Executions from 1976–October 2018, by State Texas: 555  Virginia: 113Oklahoma: 112Florida: 96Missouri: 87Georgia: 72Alabama: 63Ohio: 56North Carolina: 43South Carolina: 43Louisiana: 28Arkansas: 31All others: 184 Source: Death Penalty Information Center States and U.S. territories with no current death penalty statute are Alaska (abolished in 1957), Connecticut (2012), Delaware (2016), Hawaii (1957), Illinois (2011), Iowa (1965), Maine (1887), Maryland (2013), Massachusetts (1984), Michigan (1846), Minnesota (1911), New Jersey (2007), New Mexico (2009), New York (2007), North Dakota  (1973), Rhode Island (1984), Vermont (1964), West Virginia (1965), Wisconsin (1853), District of Columbia (1981), American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and U.S. Virgin Islands. Source: Death Penalty Information Center The Moral Conflict: Tookie Williams The case of Stanley Tookie Williams illustrates the moral complexities of the death penalty. Williams, an author and Nobel Peace and Literature Prizes nominee who was put to death on December 13, 2005, by lethal injection by the state of California, brought capital punishment back into prominent public debate. Williams was convicted of four murders committed in 1979 and sentenced to death. Williams professed innocence of these crimes. He was also co-founder of the Crips, a deadly and powerful Los Angeles–based street gang responsible for hundreds of murders. About five years after incarceration, Williams underwent a religious conversion and, as a result, wrote many books and created programs to promote peace and to fight gangs and gang violence. He was nominated five times for the Nobel Peace Prize and four times for the Nobel Literature Prize. Williams admitted his life of crime and violence, which was followed by genuine redemption and a life of unusually good works. The circumstantial evidence against Williams left little doubt that he committed the four murders, despite last-minute claims by supporters. There also existed no doubt that Williams posed no further threat to society and would contribute considerable good. His case forced public reflection on the purpose of the death penalty: Is the purpose of the death penalty to remove from society someone who would cause more harm?Is the purpose to remove from society someone who is incapable of rehabilitation?Is the purpose of the death penalty to deter others from committing murder?Is the purpose of the death penalty to punish the criminal?Is the purpose of the death penalty to take retribution on behalf of the victim? Should Stanley Tookie Williams have been executed by the state of California? Exorbitant Costs The  New York Times  penned in its  Ã‚  op-ed High Cost of Death Row: To the many excellent reasons to abolish the death penalty- it’s immoral, does not deter murder and affects minorities disproportionately- we can add one more. It’s an economic drain on governments with already badly depleted budgets.It is far from a national trend, but some legislators have begun to have second thoughts about the high cost of death row. (September 28, 2009) In a 2016 California had the unique situation of having two ballot measures up for  a vote  that purported would save taxpayers millions of dollars per year: one to speed up existing executions (Proposition 66) and one to convert all death penalty convictions to life without parole (Proposition 62). Proposition 62 failed in that election, and Proposition 66 narrowly passed.   Arguments For and Against Arguments commonly made for supporting the death penalty are: To serve as  an example  to other would-be criminals, to deter them from committing murder or terrorist acts.To punish the criminal for his/her act.To obtain retribution on behalf of the victims. Arguments commonly made to abolish the death penalty are: Death constitutes cruel and unusual punishment, which is prohibited by the Eighth Amendment to the  U.S. Constitution. Also, the various means used by the state to kill a criminal are cruel.The death penalty is used disproportionately against the poor, who cannot afford expensive legal counsel, as well as against racial, ethnic, and religious minorities.The death penalty is applied arbitrarily and inconsistently.Wrongly convicted, innocent people have received death penalty sentences, and tragically, were killed by the state.A rehabilitated criminal can make a morally valuable contribution to society.Killing human life is morally wrong under all circumstances. Some faith groups, such as the Roman Catholic Church, oppose the death penalty as not being pro-life. Countries that Retain the Death Penalty   As of 2017 per Amnesty International, 53 countries, representing about one-third of all countries worldwide, retain the death penalty for ordinary capital crimes, including the United States, plus: Afghanistan, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belize, Botswana, China, Comoros,  Democratic Republic of Congo, Cuba, Dominica, Egypt,  Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Guyana, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Lesotho, Libya, Malaysia, Nigeria, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Palestinian Authority, Qatar, Saint Kitts and Nevis,  Saint Lucia,  Saint Vincent  and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia,  Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Taiwan, Thailand,  Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda,  United Arab Emirates, United States of America, Viet Nam, Yemen, Zimbabwe. The United States is the only westernized democracy, and one of the few democracies worldwide, to not have abolished the death penalty. Countries That Abolished the Death Penalty As of 2017 per Amnesty International, 142 countries, representing two-thirds of all countries worldwide, have abolished the death penalty on moral grounds, including: Albania, Andorra, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bhutan, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Burundi, Cambodia, Canada,  Cape Verde, Colombia, Cook Islands,  Costa Rica, Cote DIvoire, Croatia, Cyprus,  Czech Republic, Denmark, Djibouti,  Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Holy See (Vatican City), Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kiribati, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta,  Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Montenegro, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands,  New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niue, Norway, Palau, Panama, Paraguay, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Rwanda, Samoa,  San Marino,  Sao Tome  and Principe, Senegal, Serbia (including Kosovo), Seychelles, Slovakia, Slovenia,  Solomon Islands,  South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Timor-Leste, Togo, Turkey , Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Ukraine,  United Kingdom, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Venezuela. Some others have a moratorium on executions or are taking strides to abolish death penalty laws on the books.

Blade Runner essays

Blade Runner essays Blade Runner is a movie based on the future. Harrison Ford is an officer that is in charge of destroying robot humans, replicas that have gone bad. The style of the movie is one of the last movies that didnt use computer graphics. This is a big hurdle to overcome for the director. I enjoyed this movie. It was an actioned pact and had a great look to the directors ideas of what the future will look like. Every detail was cool, the cars and building, and the different devices in telling if someone is a real human or not. The thing that I found interesting is that the director used a lot of dark shots, filled with smoke and very dungy looking. I picture the future very well lit, and had clean air. The director used smoke filled rooms and "yucky" looking shots. I found it interesting to see a different view of the future. The director probably used these dark conditioned to disguise the special effects and lack of technology and computer graphics. But I feel it worked. I thought the movie had an interesting feel to it, seeing these scale models to represent large futuristic cities. Harrison Ford seemed to be a 60's detective but living in the future. He played the role good. He fit the role, because he looks like he doesn't trust people. He looks at people as if he is analyzing them, and in this movie he actually is. It is his job, a good role for him. The director touches on a controversial subject. But the subject is a hot topic now, even more now then when the movie was made. It seemed like the movie should be made now. The controversy of computer and artificial intelligence is an important topic right now. Even cloning is a controversy. Everyone is worrying about what will happen if we make artificial life. But this movie gives an idea of what could happen. I thought it was very interesting. It made me think about the decisions we make now will impact the fu ...

Chinese Female Customers Attitudes by Shopping Online Research Paper

Chinese Female Customers Attitudes by Shopping Online - Research Paper Example The Internet is rapidly becoming commercialized. It is swamped with online shopping and â€Å"shopping malls†. Customers can browse on their favorite online store viewing products (like 360buy) and food items (like Taobao). People describe it as â€Å"impossible is our thinking, but not what we can buy.† Electronic-commerce began in 1984 in North America when it was introduced as an application of Internet technology. The rapid growth of e-commerce proved immensely successful in the business world. China was a little late in entering the e-commerce business but after its arrival, it has shown tremendous growth potential in all of the Internet-related industries. Many people consider the term commerce as something that describes transactions between business partners. To many, this concept is very narrow. They preferred using the term e-business. E-business is a broader definition of e-commerce as it includes the service industry along with the retail business. It also r epresents collaboration with business partners and electronic transactions in an organization. Electronic business is a relatively new field on the Internet but since its inception, the growth has been remarkable. Experts believe that international e-commerce will be leading the economy in the coming years. The global economy has changed after the introduction of digital technology. Many business terms have been redefined to better suit the needs of the economy. For instance value creation now does not rely on physical goods anymore. It focuses on services, intelligence, and information as the chief sources for creating value for the customers. The researchers have identified certain stages or attributes in e-commerce. Exchanging digital information between parties is the primary stage.   

Read, summarize, and analyze news items about insects, spiders, or Essay

Read, summarize, and analyze news items about insects, spiders, or mites - Essay Example Environmental scientists are making every effort to find out the possible causes and save the dying honey bees. A similar article â€Å"Honeybee virus: Varroa mite spreads lethal disease† published by Victoria Gill in the BBC Nature highlights one of the important factors responsible for wiping out the honey bee populations (Gill 2012). Honey bees are an important part of our ecosystem and contribute in a significant manner to the environment that is beneficial to the human beings. Honey bees play their role primarily as pollinators and are helpful to the thriving agriculture. As pollinators, they are responsible for over 130 different fruits and vegetable crops that we eat (Kulwicki 2012). Hence, without the honey bees the important process of pollination will be majorly affected, causing the crop industry to encounter a huge collapse. Not just the agriculture, the decline of the honey bees’ population also affects the economy conspicuously. The cost of many crops has increased because of the decreasing honey bees. â€Å"This basic supply and demand tilt has already impacted the over $15 billion dollar industry† (Kulwicki 2012). Therefore, the decline in the significant pollinators i.e. honey bees not only the agriculture produce per year will be affected but the economic impact will also be very upsetting. The author of the article has reported about a scientific team studying about the honey bees’ death in Hawaii. The scientists have been studying the death of honeybees caused by a viral disease and have come to a conclusion after their research and investigative study that the Varroa mite is the vector for the deathly virus. According to the scientists, the Varroa mite is the parasitic mite that spreads the lethal virus strain among the honey bees, resulting in a disease called deforming wing virus (Gill 2012). This was an important breakthrough in the research of the causative factors of honeybee death. The Varroa mite specifica lly incubates the fatal form of the disease and directly injects it into the blood of the honey bees resulting in their death (Gill 2012). Dr. Stephen Martin, the head of the scientists’ team, studied the honey bees in Hawaii where the Varroa mite was transferred from the Californian state approximately five years back. The interesting and helping aspect was that, some honeybees’ colonies in the Hawaiian Islands were still untouched from the fatal effects of the Varroa virus. Hence, the team was provided with a natural laboratory environment within the Hawaiian Islands where they had both the infected and non-infected honey bees. The team monitored both groups of the honey bee colonies for two years to observe the effects of the virus and type of viruses that were responsible for the death (Gill 2012). The outcomes exhibited the relationship between the Varroa mite and the deadly strains of the virus infecting the honey bees. It was evident after the detailed monitorin g that the fatal strain of the virus was chosen by the mites as the other strains of the same virus were not harmful in any way to the honey bees. According to Dr. Martin, an infected-honey bee contains a vast number of viruses within itself and the honey bee and viruses both are adapted to each other’s presence and no harmful outcome appears. However, the Varroa-infected honey bee

Donatellos David Essay Example for Free

Donatellos David Essay The re-creation of David, a biblical hero, comes from three very notable works of art from history. The free standing sculptures are made by Donatello, Michelangelo and Bernini. Donatello is an artist and sculptor known for his exploration of human emotion and expression. He also known to use difficult mediums to make masterpieces. In Donatello’s depiction of David appears as a bronze work of art from the Italian Renaissance period. This is a life sized sculpture of David in the nude. Its dimensions are 5’2 Â ¼ in. (as tall as me!) and possibly created thruout 1446 1460. Michelangelo the second artist of a David sculpter, was a poet and an artist, he studied and apprenticed under many great artist. Michelangelo’s depiction of David is a work of art formed from marble made in the High Renaissance period made in 1623-1624 and took about seven months to complete. The height of this sculpture is 170cm. This also is a nude statue. The last work of art we will explore, is that of David, in Bernini’s depiction. Bernini was a sculptor, painter and playwright. He was the Vatican architect in 1692. His work of David was formed from marble, made in approximately 1504 around or in the Baroque period and stands about 5.17 meter tall (17ft.) The body composition and expressions on the face are all different in each work of art of David. Donatello’s work seems to explore a younger more adolescent view of David. The body composition seems strong, but strong for a teenaged underdeveloped boy. The arms, legs and thighs have very little muscle tone and do not seem strong at all. David’s hair is long and thick but stringy. His facial features are very soft, no hard or intense emotion. The hat and boots are extremely detailed, but I must say they make did look very lady-like. The arm resting on the hip and dainty physique looks more woman-like than boy. I think the genitals look very underdeveloped. There is muscle tone in the abdominals but the chest area even look like there are breasts forming. The eyes are large

Comparison Of Buddhism And Taoism Essay -- essays research papers

Taoism and Buddhism were born in the same century. Siddhartha reached enlightenment in approximately 535 B.C. and Lao Tzu’s teachings were recorded around 500 B.C. There are many similarities in the basics of these two religions. Some of the similarities can be seen clearly when examining the three meaning of Tao. The first definition of Tao is "the way of ultimate reality." This means that Tao cannot be percieved, defined, talked about, or thought of. It is too big a concept for humans to comprehend. As in the first line of the Tao Te Ching (the Taoist text meaning The Way and Its Power): "The Tao that can be spoken is not the true Tao." This is very similar to the Buddhist idea of Nirvana or Enlightenment. Nirvana cannot be understood by one who has not attained it. Even when one has reached Nirvana, he cannot describe it to others, but only help others to reach it as well. In its second sense, Tao means "the way of the universe." Tao is something that goes through all beings, all of the earth. It is everywhere, all the time. It is something that flows through everything. This flowing idea links with the idea in Buddhism that Nirvana can be reached by anyone, as long as one is devoted enough and has lost all attachments.Thirdly, one life must be a certain way to work with the Tao: Tao also refers to "the way of human life" as it "meshes" with the universal Tao in its second sense. This fundamental idea of Taoism has m...

Features of the Indian Economy

UNIT 17 FEATURES OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY Structure 1 7. 0 Objectives 17. 1 Introduction 17. 2 Features of the Indian Economy 17. 3 Growth and Development 1 7. 4 Mixed Economy 1 7. 5 Demographic Transition 1 7. 6 Sectoral Composition of GDP 1 7. 7 Employment Structure 1 7. 8 Inter-Governmental Fiscal Relations 17. 9 Let Us Sum Up 17. 10 Key Words 1 7. 1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises – – 17. 0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to: identify the important features of the Indian economy; distinguish between economic growth and economic development; explain the pattern of demographic transition in India; xplain the sectoral composition of the Indian economy; and explain the pattern of employment in India. 17. 1 INTRODUCTION Let us begin with the word ‘economy'. It denotes the operations and management of the economic system – the activities related to production of goads and services, consumption, investment, exchange of g d an d services within the geogmphical territory, and exports and imports with rest of the world. You may have observed that production of goods and services requires inputs such as labour, capital (machineries, buildings, etc. ) and raw materials. The inputs are available in limited quantity, i. e. , there is a shortage of inputs. When these inputs are used in the production process, they need to be paid some reward. For example, if you want to employ a unit of labour you have to pay some wage to himher. Similarly, building can be hired by paying some rent or money can be borrowed by paying some interest. Ultimately utilization of inputs involves some costs. Thus the objective before the economy is to utilize the scarce resources efficiently so that production of goods and services is maximized and cost is minimized. Economic Development Now let us try to explain the structure of the Indian economy. The word structure, as you know, implies the way in which something is organised or put together. Thus we should look into the way the Indian economy is organised. AmrdinglyY we will find out the major segments or sectors of the Indian economy and the manner in which'these sectors interact with one another. In order to keep our discussion brief we will focus on the developments in the Indian economy dukg the post-independence period, particularly the period since five-year plans started in India. To begin with, we find out the important features of the Indian economy. 17. 2 FEATURES OF THE INDLAN ECONOMY At the time of Independence the Indian economy was stagnant and highly underdeveloped. Agriculture was the backbone of the economy but agricultural activities were undertaken through obsolete technology. Industrial sector c o n t r i i very little to gross domestic product (GDP). In order to give a direction to the economy the government initiated economic panning in the form of Five Year Plans in. 195 1. Over the years the economy has witnessed increase in GDP, the composition qf GDP has changed, standard of living of people has improved, and there has been ypgradation in level of technology. The important features of the Indian economy are as follows : 1) The Indian economy is a developing economy. It has not yet reached the level of economic development seen in America and Europe. – 2) The 1ndid economy is a mixed economy in the sense that both private sector and public sector coexist and participate in the production process. 3) It is c-zed by high population density and population growth. ) About one-third of the population live below poverty line. ‘Vicious cycle of poverty' operates in many sectors of the economy. 5) There is high level of unemployment and underanployment In addition, there is ‘disguised unemployment' in the agricultural sector. 6) The level of technology used in production process is low in many sectors. Modern technology has not been adopted in all sectors ofthe economy. 7) ~ h aise a shortage ofphysical and economic inhstmcture. ~ransporhti&(nm ak, railways, airlines), power (electricity, gas), and communication (telephone, Internet) have not reached all parts of the country. Even some parts of the country ‘ do not have provisions for schools, colleges, hospitals, and safe drinking-water supply- Let us discuss some of the above issues in detail. 17. 3 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Economic development is a broader term than economic growth Economic growth usually means the growth in production of an economy. On the other hand, economic development includes other fsctors such as litemcyy health, child mortality rate, equality, regional balance, infbtmchrre, etc. Country GDP Per Capita GDP Per Capita (PPP US$) (annual growth rate) 1999 (1 990-99) United States 3 1,872 2. 0 United Kingdom 22,093 2. 1 France 22,897 1. 1 Mexico – 8,297 1. 0 l3mil 7,037 1. 5 China 3,617 9. 5 * India 2,242 4. 1 – — – Bangladesh 1,483 3. 1 Sri Lanka 3,279 4. 0 Nigeria 853 -0. 5 Tanzania 501 -0. 1 * The difference between economic growth and economic development is a subtle Features of the one. Let us take the example of a child. As a child grows her weight and height increases. Simultaneously, her capacity to leam, recognize and distinguish between objects develops. Thus growth is not sufficient; we need development also. Similarly, in the case of the Indian economy economic growth is not enough; we need economic development. We need better health of people, education for all, reduction in inequality among sections of people and regions, reduction in infant mortality rate (IMR), access to drinking water for all, etc. The government has to devise policies and allocate government expenditure so that these facilities are available to all. Thus the additional income generated in the economy reaches the backward regions and the poorer sections of society. To achieve economic development we need economic growth. In a stagnant economy, where there is no economic growth, realization of economic development is dificult. Table 17. 1 India in the World Ecaoomy – – – – Source: . World Development Report Measurement of the level of economic development is dificult, because it does not depend upon a single factor. There are a number of indicators of economic development. These indicators could be quite varied and too many. In Table 17. 1 we have given the per capita GDP along with annual growth rates of some of the economies. In order to make comparison possible we have given these figures in a comparable form (in purchasing power parity US$). You can see that Indian economy is not comparable to developed economies. The per capita GDP in India is much lower than in developed countries. However, it has a higher growth rate compared to others. Note that some of the countries have very low GDP per capita and have experienced decline in it over time (see, Nigeria and Tanzania, Economic Development Apart fiom low per capita income India is far below the developed economies in terms of development indicators. Some of these indicators are consumption of electricity, literacy rate, access to safe drinking water, empowerment of women, etc. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) brings out a ‘human development index' by combining several indicators of development such as life expectancy, education, per capita income, and empowerment of women. According to Human Development Report 2001, India ranks 1 15 out of 162 countries in terms of human development index A positive feature of the Indian economy is that it is not stagnant; it is developing. It is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. There have been improvements in life expectancy, literacy, and availability of infrastructure. 17. 4 MIXED ECONOMY As mentioned earlier the Indian economy is a mixed economy where private sector and public sector coexist and contribute to the production process. Some of the activities such as law and order, justice and defence have to be performed by the government. However, the government enters directly into production of goods and services which the private sector can also produce. The extent to which the government should involve itself in the production activities is a controversial issue. During the decades of 1960s and 1 970s the Indian government produced whatever it could and intervened in the production decisions (what to prodae, where to produce, what technology to use) of the private sector through a rigorous licensing policy. We will discuss about the economic policy changes in India later in this block. Let us look into the reasons for undertaking production activities by the government. A producer in the private sector (usually motivated by higher profits) takes the risk of setting up an industry, purchases inputs, produces output and sells the output in the market for a price. Imagine a situation where a producer produces a commodity or service but cannot sell it for a price because consumers cannot be excluded fiom its consumption. You may have observed that in certain cases the benefit derived by you is in no way going to obstruct others from deriving its benefit. An example of the above could be the provision of streetlight by the local government. Thus, if your neighbour puts a light in h n t of her house, you enjoy the benefit that the front of your house also gets lighted; and you do not have to pay for it. In this case there is a market failure in the sense that your neighbour cannot charge you for the benefit you derive. Thus she does not have any incentive to put a bulb in front of her house. On similar logic you also do not put a bulb in h n t of your house, which requires street lighting by the government. Secondly, inbtructure such as road, ports, dams, etc. , require huge investment but the rate of return is very low in the short run. Thus no private entrepreneur would be interested in providing roads, which prompts the government to come forward. Thirdly, there are natural monopolies such as electricity generation, railways, etc. , where a single producer can serve the entire market. Fourthly, there are certain production activities which have so much social benefits that the govemment should produce these goods and services (e. g. , schools and colleges, hospitals, banks, etc. ). Fifthly, the government may enter into production activities to fblfil some other social objectives instead ifprofit motive. These objectives could be employment generatiorl, regional balrncc, and social i~plifot f the downtrodden. Thus there is a strong case for public sector production and Indian planners Year Share of Public Sector Share of Private Sector 1 960-61 9. 9 90. 1 1970-71 13. 7 86. 3 1980-8 1 19. 5 80. 5 1990-9 1 25. 1 74. 9 1998-99 25. 1 74. 1 recognized it fbm the very beginning. We observe the presence of public sector Features of the in construction, hotels and restaurants, transport and communication, railways, . Indian ~conomy banks and other services. Share of Public and Private Sector in GDP Let us look into the share of public sector in the GDP of M a (s ee Table 17. 2). In the financial year 1960-6 1 about 10 per cent of GDP originated fiom the public sector. In the Five Year Plans @e government expanded the role of the . government through more and [email  protected] investment in various activities. As a result,. the share of public sector in GDB increased to nearly 14 per cent in 1970-7 1, about 20 per cent in 1980-8 1 and 25 per cent in 1990-91. However, many restrictions on private sector have been removed during the decade of the 1990s. As a result, the private sector has increased rapidly and the share of public sector has remained around 25 per cent. Check Your Progress 1 Note: 3 Use the space given below for your answers. ni Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit. 1) Bring out the important fbtures of the Indian economy. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2) Distinguish between growth and development. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5†¦. .. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Economic Development 3) What are the reasons for the gov ernment to enter into production activities? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 17. 5 DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION India accounts for 2. 4 per cent of the world surface area but it has 16. per cent of the world population. As per the 2001 census the population of India in 2001 was 102 crore. Thus India is the second country in the world to cross 1 billion mark, the first one being China. However, keeping in view the f act that China has a much lower population growth rate (1. 4 per cent per year) compared to India's 1. 93 per cent per year, India is likely to overtake China within a few decades. Change in the size of population takes place through three demographic events: birth, death and migration. In the Indian economy migration has played a negligible role in population growth. Thus population growth is largely due to higher birth rate than death rate. In an economy there is a pattern in which demographic transition takes place. Such transition can be divided into three stages. It has been observed that when the level of development is low in an economy both birth rate and death rate are high. As a result population growth rate is not that high. This is the first stage of demographic transition. When economic development takes place the economy moves on to the second stage – death rate declines due to availability of health facilities and medicines but birth rate continues to remain high. This is the stage when there is a wide gap between birth rate and death rate, and population increases sharply. With M e r economic development, the economy moves on to the third stage -both birth rate and death rate are low. Consequently, population growth rate is again low in the third stage. All the developed economies are in the third stage of demographic transition. Table 173 I Demographic Transition in India Year. Population Birth Rate Death Rate Population Life (in crore) (per 1000) (per 1000) Growth Rate Expectancy (% per annurn) (in years) 1950-51 36. 1 39. 9 27. 4 1. 5 32. 1 1960-61 43. 9 41. 7 22. 8 1 . % 41. 3 1970-71 54. 8 36. 9 14. 9 2. 20 45. 6 1980-81 68. 3 33. 9 12. 5 2. 22 50. 4 1990-91 84. 6 29. 5 9. 8 2. 14 58. 7 2000-01 102. 7 25. 8 8. 5 1. 93 62. 5 – – In the case of India during the pre-independence period both birth rate and death Features of the rate were quite high. As a result, population grew at a lower rate. As you can Indian Economy see fro m Table 17. 3 population growth rate during 1950-5 1 was only 1. 25 per cent per mum. However, population growth rate accelerated afterwards and 4 i reached a peak during 1980-81. A positive sign is that in the recent census the annual population growth rate has come down below 2 per cent. Some of the states such as Kerala, Tamilnadu and Punjab have reached a reasonably lower birth rate. However, in some of the major states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh population growth rate is very high. Life expectancy indicates the number of years a newborn child is expected to . . swvive. It has increased from about 32 years in 1950-5 1 to more than 60 years at present. As a result, the percentage of the aged people in India has increased. On the other hand, a decline in birth rate has resulted in a decline in the percentage of children in the country. 4 17. 6 SECTORAL COMPOSITION OF GDP Let us look into the composition of GDP in India and the changes in it over h e . The composition of GDP in India has undergone substantial changes since 1950- 51. The share of agriculture has declined while that of industrial and service sectors has increased. Economic activities can be divided into three categories: primary activities, secondary activities and tertiary activities. Primary activities include i) agriculture, ii) fore and logging, and iii) fishing. Secondary activities include i) mining and quq& ii) d t u r i n g , iii) electricity, gas and water supply, and iv) construction Tertiary activities include i) trade, ii) hotels and restaurant, iii) transport (railways, road, air, waterways), iv) storage, v) communication, vi) banking and imurance, vii) real estate, and viii) public administration and defence. The tertiary activities are also called senrice activities. , Table 17. 4 Sectoral Composition of GDP Source: National Accounts Statistics of India Economic Development On the basis of Table 17. 4 we make the following observations: Agriculture and allied activities (p* sector) contributedmore than half of the GDP in 1950-5 1. The share of agriculture and allied activities has continuously declined over the years and contributed only 24. 2 per cent in the year 2000-01. Of this, agriculture contributed 22. 2 per cent while forestry and logging, and fishing contributed about 1 per cent each. The share of services sector has increased from 28 per cent in 1950-5 1 to 48. 5 per cent in 2000-01. For the year 2005-06 the share of services sector is estimated to be 54 per$ent of GDP. Thus services sector contributes more than half of the GDP at present. The share of secondary sector has increased fiom 14. 3 per cent in 1950-51 to 27. 3 per cent in 2000-01. Subsequently it declined to 26. 1 per cent in 2005-06. The decline in the share of the primary sector in GDP has taken place as the secondary and tertiary sectors have registered higher growth rate than the primary sector. In fact, the government has attempted to promote the secondary and tertiary sectors. If we look into the sectoral composition of GDP of the developed economies, we find that primary sector contributes less than 5 per cent of GDP. Most of the GDP comes fiom the service sector (about 70-80 per cent). So the developments in the Indian economy can be considered to be a positive aspect. A problem area, however, is the composition of employment, as we will see in the next Section. It is worth mentioning that of the 27. 3 per cent share in 2000-01 manufacturing sector contributes 17. 2 per cent to the GDP. The remaining 10. 1 per cent comes tiom mining and quarrying (2. per cent), electricity, gas and water supply (2. 5 per cent) and construction (5. 3 per cent). Remember that manufacturing, and electricity, gas and water supply constitute the industrial sector. In the industrial sector we have both private sector and public sector on the basis of ownership. Very often another distinction is made: organised sector and unorganized sector. In fact, as per the Industrial Act 1 95 1 all the industries employing more than 10 workers if production is through use of power (20 workers if production takes place without use ofpower) are ~lequiredto register with the RegisErar of Indu. These industrial units tidl under the category registered-sector or organized-sector. The remaining industrial units, mostly small scale, are termed unorganized sector. In the year 2000-01 the unorganized sector contributed 6 per cent to GDP compared to 1 1. 2 per cent by the organised sector. In the year 1950-5 1 both organized and unorganized sectors contributed almost equally to GDP at 4. 5 per cent each. Period National Per Capita Income Income First Five Year Plan (1 95 1-56) 3. 6 1. 8 Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) 4. 1 2. 0 Third Five Year Plan (1 96 1-66) 2. 5 0. 2 Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) 3. 1 . O Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) 5. 0 2. 7 Sixth Five Year Plan 1980-85) 5. 4 3. 2 , Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) 5. 8 3. 6 Eighth Five Year Plan (1 992-97) 6. 7 4. 6 Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) 5. 4 3. 5 Features of the . Indian Eeonomy Table 175 Annual Growth Rntes (per cent per mum, 1993-94 prices) Source: Economic Survey 2001-02 From Table 17. 5 we observe that f or the period 1950-75 the average annual growth rate of national income was quite low (around 3. 5 per cent). On the other hand, during thi period 1975-2000 the average annual growth rate has been around 5. per cent. A similar trend is observed in the per capita income of India Per capita income is defined as national income divided by total population of the country. It is obtained by subtrachg population growth rate h m growth rate of national income. We should mention that before 1975 growth rate in national income was relatively lower while population growth rate was higher. As a result, per capita income increased at a very low rate (a little over 1 per cent per annum). On the other hand, after 1975 growth rate in national income was higher while population growth started slowing down. Consequently, per capita income increased at a relatively higher rate. During the period 1W-2002 per capita income h2ls i n d at around 4 per cent per mum. 17. 7 EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE India being the second largest country in tern of population, it has a large labour – force (people who are able to and willing to work). In the year 1999-2000 there were 39. 7 crore employed workers in the country, which is about 40 per cent of the total population. The remaining 60 per cent population in the country are dependents. Thus for every worker there is 1. dependents. These dependents constitute children, aged and the unemployed. Because of high population growth rate the percentage of children in India is higher than in developed'countries. 13 Economic Devebpmnt Table 17. 6 Sectoral s om pod ti on of~rnployment Sector 1983 1993-94 1999-2000 Primary Sector Secondary Sector Service Sector . Total Total Employment (in crore) Agriculture has been the main source of employment in India. Dur ing the period 1950-70 it provided employment opportunity to more than two-third of the labour force. We mentioned earlier that the share of the primary sector (agriculture and allied activities) in GDP has declined over time in Indian economy. For the year 2000-01 primary sector contributed 24. 2 per cent of the GDP. Compare this with the employment share! In the year 1999-2000 nearly 60 per cent of the labour force were engaged in agriculture. We observe that the decline in GDP share of the primary sector is not accompanied by a corresponding decline in employment share. An implication is that workers employed in primary sector have a very low productivity than in secondary and tertiary sector. In the developed economies less than five per cent of the labour force is engaged in agriculture. It has been made possible by using modem technology and mechanization of agriculture. In some parts of India modem technology is employed in agriculture. However, a majority of farmers in India continue to we obsolete technology. A second implication is that there are too many people engaged in agriculture. In fiwt, agriculture has been a way of life for the households engaged in the agri- – activities. Very few children look for employment outside agriculture. And those who do not get employment anywhere else start working in the family owned land. As a result, often we see a feature termed ‘disguised unemployment' in Indian agriculture. It is a situation where a person is engaged llly in agriculture but his contribution is zero. It implies that if we take away the worlcer agricultural output will not decline. Suppose five pemons &working in a field and the output is 10 tomes of wheat. If we reduce the number of workers to four, then also output will remain the same. Thus the fifth worker worked in the field, but he is as good as unemployed, because his contribution is zero. It has been a policy of the government to shift the additional labour hxce in the ‘ agricultural sector to secondary and tertiary sectors. Recall that service sector contributes more than half of the GDP but provides employment to less than onefourth of the labour force. Thus the productivity of labour is higher in the service sector. 17. 8 INTER-GOVERNMENTAL FISCAL RELATIONS As you are aware India follows a democratic form of government, which is federal in nature. We have diffmt layem of govemment with specific powq and 14 Features of the Indian Economy esponsibilities defined by the Indian Constitution. Taking into account the amendments made so far the Constitution provides for three layers of government: Central, State and Local. In order to carry out its responsibilities the government at each level has been assigned powers to impose taxes on individuals and organizations based on criteria such as income, expenditure, production and certain economic transactions. The majo r source of revenue for the central government is income tax (on individuals and corporations), central excise, and custom duties (on imports of goods). On the other hand, there is a long list of taxes assigned to the states (including taxes on alcoholic beverages, agricultural income, and land) but the major source of tax revenue for the states is the sales tax. The tax base of the local governments is limited to local services and production. We have to keep certain things in mind while analyzing inter-govemmenth fiscal relations. One, there should be no fiscal overlapping so that the same tax should not be imposed by more than one layer of government. The Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution specifies the manner in which taxes are to be imposed by the central and state level govemments. Two, taxation power is assigned to a particular level of government keeping in view the geographical area oh which the impact of the tax is felt. Thus the tax categories assigned to the Centre are generally broad-based and their impact is felt beyond state boundaries. Three, the residual power with respect to taxation remains with the central government. While exercising such power the Centre introduced ‘service tax' during 1990s on the provision of specific services. Recall fiom Section 17. 7 of this unit that the share of s e ~ c essec tor in GDP is more than half and its share is increasing over the. Service tax is slated to be an important source of revenue in times to come. Four, imposition of taxes and hation of tax rates is a matter of political economy. In order to fbrther political interests governments have many times in the past waived taxes or excluded certain categories from taxation. A widely debated issue in this context is imposition of taxes on agricultural income, which is a state subject and state governments have invariably avoided taxation of rural rich. It has given rise to widespread tax evasion as individuals take advantage of the concession allowed to fanners and report non-agricultural income as agricultural income. Five, there is a mismatch between the tax base and the responsibilities assigned to different layers of govemments. The states have always complained about inadequate revenue compared to their expenditure. Similarly, there is shortage of funds at local government level compared to the expenditure they carry out. Six, tax base is unevenly distributed across states. For example, rich states have a relatively higher share of people who pay taxes. Similarly, relatively higher amount of excise duties is collected fiom industrially better off areas. In order to tackle the problems of inadequate tax revenue at the state level, the Centre transfers h d to the states. Apart from meeting the gap between revenue and expenditure the devolution of funds to subordinate layers of government has the effect of bringing in regional balance in economic development over time. There are three modes of transfer of h d s fiom the Centre to the states. First, the centre collects certain taxes (particularly, personal income tax and excise duties) and allocates a share of the tax proceeds to the states. In order to streamline such allocation the constitution provides for setting up of a Finance Commission every five years, which suggests criteria of such sharing between the ‘ Centre and the states on the one hand, and amongst different states on the other. So flir twelve Finance Commissions have been set up and each Finance commission Economic Development while suggesting such formulae have been poverty, backwardness, tax effort, fiscal discipline and population. The second mode of transfer of fhds h m the Centre to the states is the grants and loans extended to states for implementing development plans. As you know, while preparing the Five Year Plans the Centre sets targets and investments by different sectors of the economy. Against this backdrop the states prepare their annual plans which is approved by the Planning Commission. The states receive grants and loans h m the Centre which supplement the revenue generated at the state level. The Planning Commission allocates fhds to states as per formula devised by the National Development Council. For major states the ratio of grants to loan is 30:70. The third mode of transfer of h d s h m the Centre to the states is the grants given by central ministries to their counterparts in different states for specified projects. Such projects are wholly M e d by the Centre (under ‘central schemes') or the states are asked to contribute a proportion of the cost (in the case of 1 ‘centrally sponsored schemes'). The devolution of'fhds from the Centre to the states has been a matter of political economy. The allocation of funds across states, particularly by the Planning Commission and Central Ministries, is riddled with bargaining power of the state government, presence of pressure groups, and political interests rather than balanced economic growth. The grants extended to local bodies by the states is mostly discretionary and no set rule is formulated so far. The adoption of value added tax (VAT) by states in lieu of sales tax has opened up fhxh debates on tax base of the state governments. Check Your Progress 2 Note: i) Space given below for your answers. i) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Explain the three stages of demographic transition. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2) What are the changes. observed in the sectoral composition of GDP-in India? ‘ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 16 3) Explain the concept of disguised unemployment. Features of the IndinEconomy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4) What are the modes of transfer of h d s h mth e Centre to the States? 5) State whether the followin g statements are true or false. a) Unorganised sector is also called registered sector. b) In developed economies primary sector contributes a large share in GDP. ) Productivity of labour is higher in the tertiary sector than in the primary sector. 17. 9 LET US SUM UP Indian economy is considered to be a developing economy. At the time of Independence the agricultural sector contributed about 50 per cent of the GDP. Over the years its share has decreased to about 22 per cent of GDP which means that the share of industrial and service sectors is increasing. This is a positive development. But agricultural sector employs about 60 per cent of the labour force and this percentage is not declining which is a matter of concern. India is the second largest in terms of population and it is still growing at a very high rate. About one-third of the population in the country are poor. There is considerable underemployment and unemployment in the economy also. The federal nature of government in India requires interaction among different layers of government according to set rules. It is also desirable to achieve consistency between revenue generation and government expenditure to carry out responsibilities at each layer of government. Keeping in view the shortage of funds at the state level the Centre provides grants and loans to the states. India has made radical changes in her economic policies since 1991. Economic libedzation has resulted in setting up of more industries and the level of technology has improved. The annual growth rate of GDP has increased to about 6 per cent ; during the liberalization period. Its export potential also has improved and India Economic Development has a strong fareign exchange reserve. We will discuss the changes in economic policy, popularly termed ‘economic reforms' in subsequent units. 17. 10 KEY WORDS Constant Prices Disguised Unemployment : Financial Year Gross Domestic Product : (GDP) National Income Per Capita Income Public Sector National income in money terms would increase because of two factors: i) increase in quantity produced, and ii) increase in price of commodities. In order to neutralize the effect of price increase national income is expressed in terms of prices of a particular year, called ‘base year'. When we say that GDP is given in terms of 1993-94 prices, GDP of all the years are adjusted for price changes so that growth in GDP is due to increase in quantity w. A person is considered to be disguisedly nemployed if hisher contribution to total output is zero. Even if we withdraw the worker from work, output will not decline. Let us take an example. For the year 2004, calendar year is from January 1 to December 3 1. On the other hand, financial year 2004-05 is h m April 1,2004 to March 3 1, 2005. It is the total amount of final goods and services produced within the geographical tenitory of the economy. It does no t include intermediate goods and service, i. e. , goods and services that are not consumed directly but used for M e r production. Moreover, it does not include second hand sales ecause it does not reflect production; rather it is a change of ownership of goods produced earlier. It is also called ‘net national product' (NNP). It is the total of final goods and services produced . by Indian nationals (both within the country and residing abroad) minus the amount of dqmiation during the production process. If we add the amount of depreciation to NNP we get GNP. Remember that GNP is different from GDP. In GDP of India we include final goods and sexvices produced within the geographical territory of India (both by Indian and foreign nationals). It is national income divided by total population of the country. , -ha. . It includes the economic activities undertaken by the government. Vicious Circle of Poverty : It reflects a flow of inter-related economic activities that keep an economy under-developed. According to Ragnar Nurkse underdeveloped economies have low rate of saving which gives rise to low rate of investment. Due to low rate of investment, low level technology is employed in production activities. Because of low level of technology, output produced is lower. Consequently, saving is low and the cycle