Pros Cons of the Death Penalty and Current Status by Country

Pros Cons of the Death Penalty and Current Status by Country Capital punishment also dubbed the death penalty, is the planned taking of a human life by a government in response to a crime committed by that legally convicted person. Passions in the United States are sharply divided and run equally strong among both supporters and protesters of the death penalty. Quotations from Both Sides Arguing against capital punishment, Amnesty International believes: The death penalty is the ultimate denial of human rights. It is the premeditated and cold-blooded killing of a human being by the state in the name of justice. It violates the right to life...It is the ultimate cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment. There can never be any justification for torture or for cruel treatment.​ Arguing for capital punishment, the Clark County, Indiana, prosecuting attorney writes: There are some defendants who have earned the ultimate punishment our society has to offer by committing murder with ​aggravating circumstances present. I believe life is sacred. It cheapens the life of an innocent murder victim to say that society has no right to keep the murderer from ever killing again. In my view, society has not only the right, but the duty to act in self-defense to protect the innocent.​ And Catholic Cardinal Theodore McCarrick, Archbishop of Washington, wrote: The death penalty diminishes all of us, increases disrespect for human life, and offers the tragic illusion that we can teach that killing is wrong by killing. Death Penalty in the United States The death penalty has not always been practiced in the United States, although Time magazine estimated that in this country, more than 15,700 people have been legally executed since 1700. The Depression-era 1930s, which saw a historic peak in executions, was followed by a dramatic decrease in the 1950s and 1960s. No executions occurred in the United States between 1967 and 1976.In 1972, the Supreme Court effectively nullified the death penalty and converted the death sentences of hundreds of death row inmates to life in prison.In 1976, another Supreme Court ruling found capital punishment to be constitutional. Since 1976, almost 1,500 people have been executed in the United States. Latest Developments The vast majority of democratic countries in Europe and Latin America have abolished capital punishment over the last 50 years, but the United States, most democracies in Asia, and almost all totalitarian governments retain it. Crimes that carry the death penalty vary greatly worldwide, from treason and murder to theft. In militaries around the world, courts-martial have sentenced capital punishments also for cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. Per Amnesty Internationals 2017 death penalty annual report, Amnesty International recorded at least  993 executions  in  23 countries  in 2017, down by 4% from 2016 (1,032 executions) and 39% from 2015 (when the organization reported 1,634 executions, the highest number since 1989). However, those statistics do not include China, known as the worlds top executioner, because the use of the death penalty is a state secret. Countries in the table below with a plus sign () indicate that there were executions, but numbers were not received by Amnesty International. Executions in 2017, by Country China: Iran: 507Saudi Arabia: 146Iraq: 125Pakistan: 60Egypt: 35Somalia: 24United States: 23Jordan: 15Vietnam: North Korea: All other: 58Source: Amnesty International As of 2018, capital punishment in the United States is officially sanctioned by 31 states, as well as by the federal government. Each state with legalized capital punishment has different laws regarding its methods, age limits, and crimes that qualify. From 1976 through October 2018, 1,483 felons were executed in the United States, distributed among the states as follows: Executions from 1976–October 2018, by State Texas: 555  Virginia: 113Oklahoma: 112Florida: 96Missouri: 87Georgia: 72Alabama: 63Ohio: 56North Carolina: 43South Carolina: 43Louisiana: 28Arkansas: 31All others: 184 Source: Death Penalty Information Center States and U.S. territories with no current death penalty statute are Alaska (abolished in 1957), Connecticut (2012), Delaware (2016), Hawaii (1957), Illinois (2011), Iowa (1965), Maine (1887), Maryland (2013), Massachusetts (1984), Michigan (1846), Minnesota (1911), New Jersey (2007), New Mexico (2009), New York (2007), North Dakota  (1973), Rhode Island (1984), Vermont (1964), West Virginia (1965), Wisconsin (1853), District of Columbia (1981), American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and U.S. Virgin Islands. Source: Death Penalty Information Center The Moral Conflict: Tookie Williams The case of Stanley Tookie Williams illustrates the moral complexities of the death penalty. Williams, an author and Nobel Peace and Literature Prizes nominee who was put to death on December 13, 2005, by lethal injection by the state of California, brought capital punishment back into prominent public debate. Williams was convicted of four murders committed in 1979 and sentenced to death. Williams professed innocence of these crimes. He was also co-founder of the Crips, a deadly and powerful Los Angeles–based street gang responsible for hundreds of murders. About five years after incarceration, Williams underwent a religious conversion and, as a result, wrote many books and created programs to promote peace and to fight gangs and gang violence. He was nominated five times for the Nobel Peace Prize and four times for the Nobel Literature Prize. Williams admitted his life of crime and violence, which was followed by genuine redemption and a life of unusually good works. The circumstantial evidence against Williams left little doubt that he committed the four murders, despite last-minute claims by supporters. There also existed no doubt that Williams posed no further threat to society and would contribute considerable good. His case forced public reflection on the purpose of the death penalty: Is the purpose of the death penalty to remove from society someone who would cause more harm?Is the purpose to remove from society someone who is incapable of rehabilitation?Is the purpose of the death penalty to deter others from committing murder?Is the purpose of the death penalty to punish the criminal?Is the purpose of the death penalty to take retribution on behalf of the victim? Should Stanley Tookie Williams have been executed by the state of California? Exorbitant Costs The  New York Times  penned in its  Ã‚  op-ed High Cost of Death Row: To the many excellent reasons to abolish the death penalty- it’s immoral, does not deter murder and affects minorities disproportionately- we can add one more. It’s an economic drain on governments with already badly depleted budgets.It is far from a national trend, but some legislators have begun to have second thoughts about the high cost of death row. (September 28, 2009) In a 2016 California had the unique situation of having two ballot measures up for  a vote  that purported would save taxpayers millions of dollars per year: one to speed up existing executions (Proposition 66) and one to convert all death penalty convictions to life without parole (Proposition 62). Proposition 62 failed in that election, and Proposition 66 narrowly passed.   Arguments For and Against Arguments commonly made for supporting the death penalty are: To serve as  an example  to other would-be criminals, to deter them from committing murder or terrorist acts.To punish the criminal for his/her act.To obtain retribution on behalf of the victims. Arguments commonly made to abolish the death penalty are: Death constitutes cruel and unusual punishment, which is prohibited by the Eighth Amendment to the  U.S. Constitution. Also, the various means used by the state to kill a criminal are cruel.The death penalty is used disproportionately against the poor, who cannot afford expensive legal counsel, as well as against racial, ethnic, and religious minorities.The death penalty is applied arbitrarily and inconsistently.Wrongly convicted, innocent people have received death penalty sentences, and tragically, were killed by the state.A rehabilitated criminal can make a morally valuable contribution to society.Killing human life is morally wrong under all circumstances. Some faith groups, such as the Roman Catholic Church, oppose the death penalty as not being pro-life. Countries that Retain the Death Penalty   As of 2017 per Amnesty International, 53 countries, representing about one-third of all countries worldwide, retain the death penalty for ordinary capital crimes, including the United States, plus: Afghanistan, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belize, Botswana, China, Comoros,  Democratic Republic of Congo, Cuba, Dominica, Egypt,  Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Guyana, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Lesotho, Libya, Malaysia, Nigeria, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Palestinian Authority, Qatar, Saint Kitts and Nevis,  Saint Lucia,  Saint Vincent  and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia,  Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Taiwan, Thailand,  Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda,  United Arab Emirates, United States of America, Viet Nam, Yemen, Zimbabwe. The United States is the only westernized democracy, and one of the few democracies worldwide, to not have abolished the death penalty. Countries That Abolished the Death Penalty As of 2017 per Amnesty International, 142 countries, representing two-thirds of all countries worldwide, have abolished the death penalty on moral grounds, including: Albania, Andorra, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bhutan, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Burundi, Cambodia, Canada,  Cape Verde, Colombia, Cook Islands,  Costa Rica, Cote DIvoire, Croatia, Cyprus,  Czech Republic, Denmark, Djibouti,  Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Holy See (Vatican City), Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kiribati, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta,  Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Montenegro, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands,  New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niue, Norway, Palau, Panama, Paraguay, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Rwanda, Samoa,  San Marino,  Sao Tome  and Principe, Senegal, Serbia (including Kosovo), Seychelles, Slovakia, Slovenia,  Solomon Islands,  South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Timor-Leste, Togo, Turkey , Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Ukraine,  United Kingdom, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Venezuela. Some others have a moratorium on executions or are taking strides to abolish death penalty laws on the books.

Blade Runner essays

Blade Runner essays Blade Runner is a movie based on the future. Harrison Ford is an officer that is in charge of destroying robot humans, replicas that have gone bad. The style of the movie is one of the last movies that didnt use computer graphics. This is a big hurdle to overcome for the director. I enjoyed this movie. It was an actioned pact and had a great look to the directors ideas of what the future will look like. Every detail was cool, the cars and building, and the different devices in telling if someone is a real human or not. The thing that I found interesting is that the director used a lot of dark shots, filled with smoke and very dungy looking. I picture the future very well lit, and had clean air. The director used smoke filled rooms and "yucky" looking shots. I found it interesting to see a different view of the future. The director probably used these dark conditioned to disguise the special effects and lack of technology and computer graphics. But I feel it worked. I thought the movie had an interesting feel to it, seeing these scale models to represent large futuristic cities. Harrison Ford seemed to be a 60's detective but living in the future. He played the role good. He fit the role, because he looks like he doesn't trust people. He looks at people as if he is analyzing them, and in this movie he actually is. It is his job, a good role for him. The director touches on a controversial subject. But the subject is a hot topic now, even more now then when the movie was made. It seemed like the movie should be made now. The controversy of computer and artificial intelligence is an important topic right now. Even cloning is a controversy. Everyone is worrying about what will happen if we make artificial life. But this movie gives an idea of what could happen. I thought it was very interesting. It made me think about the decisions we make now will impact the fu ...

Chinese Female Customers Attitudes by Shopping Online Research Paper

Chinese Female Customers Attitudes by Shopping Online - Research Paper Example The Internet is rapidly becoming commercialized. It is swamped with online shopping and â€Å"shopping malls†. Customers can browse on their favorite online store viewing products (like 360buy) and food items (like Taobao). People describe it as â€Å"impossible is our thinking, but not what we can buy.† Electronic-commerce began in 1984 in North America when it was introduced as an application of Internet technology. The rapid growth of e-commerce proved immensely successful in the business world. China was a little late in entering the e-commerce business but after its arrival, it has shown tremendous growth potential in all of the Internet-related industries. Many people consider the term commerce as something that describes transactions between business partners. To many, this concept is very narrow. They preferred using the term e-business. E-business is a broader definition of e-commerce as it includes the service industry along with the retail business. It also r epresents collaboration with business partners and electronic transactions in an organization. Electronic business is a relatively new field on the Internet but since its inception, the growth has been remarkable. Experts believe that international e-commerce will be leading the economy in the coming years. The global economy has changed after the introduction of digital technology. Many business terms have been redefined to better suit the needs of the economy. For instance value creation now does not rely on physical goods anymore. It focuses on services, intelligence, and information as the chief sources for creating value for the customers. The researchers have identified certain stages or attributes in e-commerce. Exchanging digital information between parties is the primary stage.   

Read, summarize, and analyze news items about insects, spiders, or Essay

Read, summarize, and analyze news items about insects, spiders, or mites - Essay Example Environmental scientists are making every effort to find out the possible causes and save the dying honey bees. A similar article â€Å"Honeybee virus: Varroa mite spreads lethal disease† published by Victoria Gill in the BBC Nature highlights one of the important factors responsible for wiping out the honey bee populations (Gill 2012). Honey bees are an important part of our ecosystem and contribute in a significant manner to the environment that is beneficial to the human beings. Honey bees play their role primarily as pollinators and are helpful to the thriving agriculture. As pollinators, they are responsible for over 130 different fruits and vegetable crops that we eat (Kulwicki 2012). Hence, without the honey bees the important process of pollination will be majorly affected, causing the crop industry to encounter a huge collapse. Not just the agriculture, the decline of the honey bees’ population also affects the economy conspicuously. The cost of many crops has increased because of the decreasing honey bees. â€Å"This basic supply and demand tilt has already impacted the over $15 billion dollar industry† (Kulwicki 2012). Therefore, the decline in the significant pollinators i.e. honey bees not only the agriculture produce per year will be affected but the economic impact will also be very upsetting. The author of the article has reported about a scientific team studying about the honey bees’ death in Hawaii. The scientists have been studying the death of honeybees caused by a viral disease and have come to a conclusion after their research and investigative study that the Varroa mite is the vector for the deathly virus. According to the scientists, the Varroa mite is the parasitic mite that spreads the lethal virus strain among the honey bees, resulting in a disease called deforming wing virus (Gill 2012). This was an important breakthrough in the research of the causative factors of honeybee death. The Varroa mite specifica lly incubates the fatal form of the disease and directly injects it into the blood of the honey bees resulting in their death (Gill 2012). Dr. Stephen Martin, the head of the scientists’ team, studied the honey bees in Hawaii where the Varroa mite was transferred from the Californian state approximately five years back. The interesting and helping aspect was that, some honeybees’ colonies in the Hawaiian Islands were still untouched from the fatal effects of the Varroa virus. Hence, the team was provided with a natural laboratory environment within the Hawaiian Islands where they had both the infected and non-infected honey bees. The team monitored both groups of the honey bee colonies for two years to observe the effects of the virus and type of viruses that were responsible for the death (Gill 2012). The outcomes exhibited the relationship between the Varroa mite and the deadly strains of the virus infecting the honey bees. It was evident after the detailed monitorin g that the fatal strain of the virus was chosen by the mites as the other strains of the same virus were not harmful in any way to the honey bees. According to Dr. Martin, an infected-honey bee contains a vast number of viruses within itself and the honey bee and viruses both are adapted to each other’s presence and no harmful outcome appears. However, the Varroa-infected honey bee

Donatellos David Essay Example for Free

Donatellos David Essay The re-creation of David, a biblical hero, comes from three very notable works of art from history. The free standing sculptures are made by Donatello, Michelangelo and Bernini. Donatello is an artist and sculptor known for his exploration of human emotion and expression. He also known to use difficult mediums to make masterpieces. In Donatello’s depiction of David appears as a bronze work of art from the Italian Renaissance period. This is a life sized sculpture of David in the nude. Its dimensions are 5’2 Â ¼ in. (as tall as me!) and possibly created thruout 1446 1460. Michelangelo the second artist of a David sculpter, was a poet and an artist, he studied and apprenticed under many great artist. Michelangelo’s depiction of David is a work of art formed from marble made in the High Renaissance period made in 1623-1624 and took about seven months to complete. The height of this sculpture is 170cm. This also is a nude statue. The last work of art we will explore, is that of David, in Bernini’s depiction. Bernini was a sculptor, painter and playwright. He was the Vatican architect in 1692. His work of David was formed from marble, made in approximately 1504 around or in the Baroque period and stands about 5.17 meter tall (17ft.) The body composition and expressions on the face are all different in each work of art of David. Donatello’s work seems to explore a younger more adolescent view of David. The body composition seems strong, but strong for a teenaged underdeveloped boy. The arms, legs and thighs have very little muscle tone and do not seem strong at all. David’s hair is long and thick but stringy. His facial features are very soft, no hard or intense emotion. The hat and boots are extremely detailed, but I must say they make did look very lady-like. The arm resting on the hip and dainty physique looks more woman-like than boy. I think the genitals look very underdeveloped. There is muscle tone in the abdominals but the chest area even look like there are breasts forming. The eyes are large

Comparison Of Buddhism And Taoism Essay -- essays research papers

Taoism and Buddhism were born in the same century. Siddhartha reached enlightenment in approximately 535 B.C. and Lao Tzu’s teachings were recorded around 500 B.C. There are many similarities in the basics of these two religions. Some of the similarities can be seen clearly when examining the three meaning of Tao. The first definition of Tao is "the way of ultimate reality." This means that Tao cannot be percieved, defined, talked about, or thought of. It is too big a concept for humans to comprehend. As in the first line of the Tao Te Ching (the Taoist text meaning The Way and Its Power): "The Tao that can be spoken is not the true Tao." This is very similar to the Buddhist idea of Nirvana or Enlightenment. Nirvana cannot be understood by one who has not attained it. Even when one has reached Nirvana, he cannot describe it to others, but only help others to reach it as well. In its second sense, Tao means "the way of the universe." Tao is something that goes through all beings, all of the earth. It is everywhere, all the time. It is something that flows through everything. This flowing idea links with the idea in Buddhism that Nirvana can be reached by anyone, as long as one is devoted enough and has lost all attachments.Thirdly, one life must be a certain way to work with the Tao: Tao also refers to "the way of human life" as it "meshes" with the universal Tao in its second sense. This fundamental idea of Taoism has m...

Features of the Indian Economy

UNIT 17 FEATURES OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY Structure 1 7. 0 Objectives 17. 1 Introduction 17. 2 Features of the Indian Economy 17. 3 Growth and Development 1 7. 4 Mixed Economy 1 7. 5 Demographic Transition 1 7. 6 Sectoral Composition of GDP 1 7. 7 Employment Structure 1 7. 8 Inter-Governmental Fiscal Relations 17. 9 Let Us Sum Up 17. 10 Key Words 1 7. 1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises – – 17. 0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to: identify the important features of the Indian economy; distinguish between economic growth and economic development; explain the pattern of demographic transition in India; xplain the sectoral composition of the Indian economy; and explain the pattern of employment in India. 17. 1 INTRODUCTION Let us begin with the word ‘economy'. It denotes the operations and management of the economic system – the activities related to production of goads and services, consumption, investment, exchange of g d an d services within the geogmphical territory, and exports and imports with rest of the world. You may have observed that production of goods and services requires inputs such as labour, capital (machineries, buildings, etc. ) and raw materials. The inputs are available in limited quantity, i. e. , there is a shortage of inputs. When these inputs are used in the production process, they need to be paid some reward. For example, if you want to employ a unit of labour you have to pay some wage to himher. Similarly, building can be hired by paying some rent or money can be borrowed by paying some interest. Ultimately utilization of inputs involves some costs. Thus the objective before the economy is to utilize the scarce resources efficiently so that production of goods and services is maximized and cost is minimized. Economic Development Now let us try to explain the structure of the Indian economy. The word structure, as you know, implies the way in which something is organised or put together. Thus we should look into the way the Indian economy is organised. AmrdinglyY we will find out the major segments or sectors of the Indian economy and the manner in which'these sectors interact with one another. In order to keep our discussion brief we will focus on the developments in the Indian economy dukg the post-independence period, particularly the period since five-year plans started in India. To begin with, we find out the important features of the Indian economy. 17. 2 FEATURES OF THE INDLAN ECONOMY At the time of Independence the Indian economy was stagnant and highly underdeveloped. Agriculture was the backbone of the economy but agricultural activities were undertaken through obsolete technology. Industrial sector c o n t r i i very little to gross domestic product (GDP). In order to give a direction to the economy the government initiated economic panning in the form of Five Year Plans in. 195 1. Over the years the economy has witnessed increase in GDP, the composition qf GDP has changed, standard of living of people has improved, and there has been ypgradation in level of technology. The important features of the Indian economy are as follows : 1) The Indian economy is a developing economy. It has not yet reached the level of economic development seen in America and Europe. – 2) The 1ndid economy is a mixed economy in the sense that both private sector and public sector coexist and participate in the production process. 3) It is c-zed by high population density and population growth. ) About one-third of the population live below poverty line. ‘Vicious cycle of poverty' operates in many sectors of the economy. 5) There is high level of unemployment and underanployment In addition, there is ‘disguised unemployment' in the agricultural sector. 6) The level of technology used in production process is low in many sectors. Modern technology has not been adopted in all sectors ofthe economy. 7) ~ h aise a shortage ofphysical and economic inhstmcture. ~ransporhti&(nm ak, railways, airlines), power (electricity, gas), and communication (telephone, Internet) have not reached all parts of the country. Even some parts of the country ‘ do not have provisions for schools, colleges, hospitals, and safe drinking-water supply- Let us discuss some of the above issues in detail. 17. 3 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Economic development is a broader term than economic growth Economic growth usually means the growth in production of an economy. On the other hand, economic development includes other fsctors such as litemcyy health, child mortality rate, equality, regional balance, infbtmchrre, etc. Country GDP Per Capita GDP Per Capita (PPP US$) (annual growth rate) 1999 (1 990-99) United States 3 1,872 2. 0 United Kingdom 22,093 2. 1 France 22,897 1. 1 Mexico – 8,297 1. 0 l3mil 7,037 1. 5 China 3,617 9. 5 * India 2,242 4. 1 – — – Bangladesh 1,483 3. 1 Sri Lanka 3,279 4. 0 Nigeria 853 -0. 5 Tanzania 501 -0. 1 * The difference between economic growth and economic development is a subtle Features of the one. Let us take the example of a child. As a child grows her weight and height increases. Simultaneously, her capacity to leam, recognize and distinguish between objects develops. Thus growth is not sufficient; we need development also. Similarly, in the case of the Indian economy economic growth is not enough; we need economic development. We need better health of people, education for all, reduction in inequality among sections of people and regions, reduction in infant mortality rate (IMR), access to drinking water for all, etc. The government has to devise policies and allocate government expenditure so that these facilities are available to all. Thus the additional income generated in the economy reaches the backward regions and the poorer sections of society. To achieve economic development we need economic growth. In a stagnant economy, where there is no economic growth, realization of economic development is dificult. Table 17. 1 India in the World Ecaoomy – – – – Source: . World Development Report Measurement of the level of economic development is dificult, because it does not depend upon a single factor. There are a number of indicators of economic development. These indicators could be quite varied and too many. In Table 17. 1 we have given the per capita GDP along with annual growth rates of some of the economies. In order to make comparison possible we have given these figures in a comparable form (in purchasing power parity US$). You can see that Indian economy is not comparable to developed economies. The per capita GDP in India is much lower than in developed countries. However, it has a higher growth rate compared to others. Note that some of the countries have very low GDP per capita and have experienced decline in it over time (see, Nigeria and Tanzania, Economic Development Apart fiom low per capita income India is far below the developed economies in terms of development indicators. Some of these indicators are consumption of electricity, literacy rate, access to safe drinking water, empowerment of women, etc. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) brings out a ‘human development index' by combining several indicators of development such as life expectancy, education, per capita income, and empowerment of women. According to Human Development Report 2001, India ranks 1 15 out of 162 countries in terms of human development index A positive feature of the Indian economy is that it is not stagnant; it is developing. It is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. There have been improvements in life expectancy, literacy, and availability of infrastructure. 17. 4 MIXED ECONOMY As mentioned earlier the Indian economy is a mixed economy where private sector and public sector coexist and contribute to the production process. Some of the activities such as law and order, justice and defence have to be performed by the government. However, the government enters directly into production of goods and services which the private sector can also produce. The extent to which the government should involve itself in the production activities is a controversial issue. During the decades of 1960s and 1 970s the Indian government produced whatever it could and intervened in the production decisions (what to prodae, where to produce, what technology to use) of the private sector through a rigorous licensing policy. We will discuss about the economic policy changes in India later in this block. Let us look into the reasons for undertaking production activities by the government. A producer in the private sector (usually motivated by higher profits) takes the risk of setting up an industry, purchases inputs, produces output and sells the output in the market for a price. Imagine a situation where a producer produces a commodity or service but cannot sell it for a price because consumers cannot be excluded fiom its consumption. You may have observed that in certain cases the benefit derived by you is in no way going to obstruct others from deriving its benefit. An example of the above could be the provision of streetlight by the local government. Thus, if your neighbour puts a light in h n t of her house, you enjoy the benefit that the front of your house also gets lighted; and you do not have to pay for it. In this case there is a market failure in the sense that your neighbour cannot charge you for the benefit you derive. Thus she does not have any incentive to put a bulb in front of her house. On similar logic you also do not put a bulb in h n t of your house, which requires street lighting by the government. Secondly, inbtructure such as road, ports, dams, etc. , require huge investment but the rate of return is very low in the short run. Thus no private entrepreneur would be interested in providing roads, which prompts the government to come forward. Thirdly, there are natural monopolies such as electricity generation, railways, etc. , where a single producer can serve the entire market. Fourthly, there are certain production activities which have so much social benefits that the govemment should produce these goods and services (e. g. , schools and colleges, hospitals, banks, etc. ). Fifthly, the government may enter into production activities to fblfil some other social objectives instead ifprofit motive. These objectives could be employment generatiorl, regional balrncc, and social i~plifot f the downtrodden. Thus there is a strong case for public sector production and Indian planners Year Share of Public Sector Share of Private Sector 1 960-61 9. 9 90. 1 1970-71 13. 7 86. 3 1980-8 1 19. 5 80. 5 1990-9 1 25. 1 74. 9 1998-99 25. 1 74. 1 recognized it fbm the very beginning. We observe the presence of public sector Features of the in construction, hotels and restaurants, transport and communication, railways, . Indian ~conomy banks and other services. Share of Public and Private Sector in GDP Let us look into the share of public sector in the GDP of M a (s ee Table 17. 2). In the financial year 1960-6 1 about 10 per cent of GDP originated fiom the public sector. In the Five Year Plans @e government expanded the role of the . government through more and [email  protected] investment in various activities. As a result,. the share of public sector in GDB increased to nearly 14 per cent in 1970-7 1, about 20 per cent in 1980-8 1 and 25 per cent in 1990-91. However, many restrictions on private sector have been removed during the decade of the 1990s. As a result, the private sector has increased rapidly and the share of public sector has remained around 25 per cent. Check Your Progress 1 Note: 3 Use the space given below for your answers. ni Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit. 1) Bring out the important fbtures of the Indian economy. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2) Distinguish between growth and development. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5†¦. .. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Economic Development 3) What are the reasons for the gov ernment to enter into production activities? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 17. 5 DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION India accounts for 2. 4 per cent of the world surface area but it has 16. per cent of the world population. As per the 2001 census the population of India in 2001 was 102 crore. Thus India is the second country in the world to cross 1 billion mark, the first one being China. However, keeping in view the f act that China has a much lower population growth rate (1. 4 per cent per year) compared to India's 1. 93 per cent per year, India is likely to overtake China within a few decades. Change in the size of population takes place through three demographic events: birth, death and migration. In the Indian economy migration has played a negligible role in population growth. Thus population growth is largely due to higher birth rate than death rate. In an economy there is a pattern in which demographic transition takes place. Such transition can be divided into three stages. It has been observed that when the level of development is low in an economy both birth rate and death rate are high. As a result population growth rate is not that high. This is the first stage of demographic transition. When economic development takes place the economy moves on to the second stage – death rate declines due to availability of health facilities and medicines but birth rate continues to remain high. This is the stage when there is a wide gap between birth rate and death rate, and population increases sharply. With M e r economic development, the economy moves on to the third stage -both birth rate and death rate are low. Consequently, population growth rate is again low in the third stage. All the developed economies are in the third stage of demographic transition. Table 173 I Demographic Transition in India Year. Population Birth Rate Death Rate Population Life (in crore) (per 1000) (per 1000) Growth Rate Expectancy (% per annurn) (in years) 1950-51 36. 1 39. 9 27. 4 1. 5 32. 1 1960-61 43. 9 41. 7 22. 8 1 . % 41. 3 1970-71 54. 8 36. 9 14. 9 2. 20 45. 6 1980-81 68. 3 33. 9 12. 5 2. 22 50. 4 1990-91 84. 6 29. 5 9. 8 2. 14 58. 7 2000-01 102. 7 25. 8 8. 5 1. 93 62. 5 – – In the case of India during the pre-independence period both birth rate and death Features of the rate were quite high. As a result, population grew at a lower rate. As you can Indian Economy see fro m Table 17. 3 population growth rate during 1950-5 1 was only 1. 25 per cent per mum. However, population growth rate accelerated afterwards and 4 i reached a peak during 1980-81. A positive sign is that in the recent census the annual population growth rate has come down below 2 per cent. Some of the states such as Kerala, Tamilnadu and Punjab have reached a reasonably lower birth rate. However, in some of the major states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh population growth rate is very high. Life expectancy indicates the number of years a newborn child is expected to . . swvive. It has increased from about 32 years in 1950-5 1 to more than 60 years at present. As a result, the percentage of the aged people in India has increased. On the other hand, a decline in birth rate has resulted in a decline in the percentage of children in the country. 4 17. 6 SECTORAL COMPOSITION OF GDP Let us look into the composition of GDP in India and the changes in it over h e . The composition of GDP in India has undergone substantial changes since 1950- 51. The share of agriculture has declined while that of industrial and service sectors has increased. Economic activities can be divided into three categories: primary activities, secondary activities and tertiary activities. Primary activities include i) agriculture, ii) fore and logging, and iii) fishing. Secondary activities include i) mining and quq& ii) d t u r i n g , iii) electricity, gas and water supply, and iv) construction Tertiary activities include i) trade, ii) hotels and restaurant, iii) transport (railways, road, air, waterways), iv) storage, v) communication, vi) banking and imurance, vii) real estate, and viii) public administration and defence. The tertiary activities are also called senrice activities. , Table 17. 4 Sectoral Composition of GDP Source: National Accounts Statistics of India Economic Development On the basis of Table 17. 4 we make the following observations: Agriculture and allied activities (p* sector) contributedmore than half of the GDP in 1950-5 1. The share of agriculture and allied activities has continuously declined over the years and contributed only 24. 2 per cent in the year 2000-01. Of this, agriculture contributed 22. 2 per cent while forestry and logging, and fishing contributed about 1 per cent each. The share of services sector has increased from 28 per cent in 1950-5 1 to 48. 5 per cent in 2000-01. For the year 2005-06 the share of services sector is estimated to be 54 per$ent of GDP. Thus services sector contributes more than half of the GDP at present. The share of secondary sector has increased fiom 14. 3 per cent in 1950-51 to 27. 3 per cent in 2000-01. Subsequently it declined to 26. 1 per cent in 2005-06. The decline in the share of the primary sector in GDP has taken place as the secondary and tertiary sectors have registered higher growth rate than the primary sector. In fact, the government has attempted to promote the secondary and tertiary sectors. If we look into the sectoral composition of GDP of the developed economies, we find that primary sector contributes less than 5 per cent of GDP. Most of the GDP comes fiom the service sector (about 70-80 per cent). So the developments in the Indian economy can be considered to be a positive aspect. A problem area, however, is the composition of employment, as we will see in the next Section. It is worth mentioning that of the 27. 3 per cent share in 2000-01 manufacturing sector contributes 17. 2 per cent to the GDP. The remaining 10. 1 per cent comes tiom mining and quarrying (2. per cent), electricity, gas and water supply (2. 5 per cent) and construction (5. 3 per cent). Remember that manufacturing, and electricity, gas and water supply constitute the industrial sector. In the industrial sector we have both private sector and public sector on the basis of ownership. Very often another distinction is made: organised sector and unorganized sector. In fact, as per the Industrial Act 1 95 1 all the industries employing more than 10 workers if production is through use of power (20 workers if production takes place without use ofpower) are ~lequiredto register with the RegisErar of Indu. These industrial units tidl under the category registered-sector or organized-sector. The remaining industrial units, mostly small scale, are termed unorganized sector. In the year 2000-01 the unorganized sector contributed 6 per cent to GDP compared to 1 1. 2 per cent by the organised sector. In the year 1950-5 1 both organized and unorganized sectors contributed almost equally to GDP at 4. 5 per cent each. Period National Per Capita Income Income First Five Year Plan (1 95 1-56) 3. 6 1. 8 Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) 4. 1 2. 0 Third Five Year Plan (1 96 1-66) 2. 5 0. 2 Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) 3. 1 . O Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) 5. 0 2. 7 Sixth Five Year Plan 1980-85) 5. 4 3. 2 , Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) 5. 8 3. 6 Eighth Five Year Plan (1 992-97) 6. 7 4. 6 Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) 5. 4 3. 5 Features of the . Indian Eeonomy Table 175 Annual Growth Rntes (per cent per mum, 1993-94 prices) Source: Economic Survey 2001-02 From Table 17. 5 we observe that f or the period 1950-75 the average annual growth rate of national income was quite low (around 3. 5 per cent). On the other hand, during thi period 1975-2000 the average annual growth rate has been around 5. per cent. A similar trend is observed in the per capita income of India Per capita income is defined as national income divided by total population of the country. It is obtained by subtrachg population growth rate h m growth rate of national income. We should mention that before 1975 growth rate in national income was relatively lower while population growth rate was higher. As a result, per capita income increased at a very low rate (a little over 1 per cent per annum). On the other hand, after 1975 growth rate in national income was higher while population growth started slowing down. Consequently, per capita income increased at a relatively higher rate. During the period 1W-2002 per capita income h2ls i n d at around 4 per cent per mum. 17. 7 EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE India being the second largest country in tern of population, it has a large labour – force (people who are able to and willing to work). In the year 1999-2000 there were 39. 7 crore employed workers in the country, which is about 40 per cent of the total population. The remaining 60 per cent population in the country are dependents. Thus for every worker there is 1. dependents. These dependents constitute children, aged and the unemployed. Because of high population growth rate the percentage of children in India is higher than in developed'countries. 13 Economic Devebpmnt Table 17. 6 Sectoral s om pod ti on of~rnployment Sector 1983 1993-94 1999-2000 Primary Sector Secondary Sector Service Sector . Total Total Employment (in crore) Agriculture has been the main source of employment in India. Dur ing the period 1950-70 it provided employment opportunity to more than two-third of the labour force. We mentioned earlier that the share of the primary sector (agriculture and allied activities) in GDP has declined over time in Indian economy. For the year 2000-01 primary sector contributed 24. 2 per cent of the GDP. Compare this with the employment share! In the year 1999-2000 nearly 60 per cent of the labour force were engaged in agriculture. We observe that the decline in GDP share of the primary sector is not accompanied by a corresponding decline in employment share. An implication is that workers employed in primary sector have a very low productivity than in secondary and tertiary sector. In the developed economies less than five per cent of the labour force is engaged in agriculture. It has been made possible by using modem technology and mechanization of agriculture. In some parts of India modem technology is employed in agriculture. However, a majority of farmers in India continue to we obsolete technology. A second implication is that there are too many people engaged in agriculture. In fiwt, agriculture has been a way of life for the households engaged in the agri- – activities. Very few children look for employment outside agriculture. And those who do not get employment anywhere else start working in the family owned land. As a result, often we see a feature termed ‘disguised unemployment' in Indian agriculture. It is a situation where a person is engaged llly in agriculture but his contribution is zero. It implies that if we take away the worlcer agricultural output will not decline. Suppose five pemons &working in a field and the output is 10 tomes of wheat. If we reduce the number of workers to four, then also output will remain the same. Thus the fifth worker worked in the field, but he is as good as unemployed, because his contribution is zero. It has been a policy of the government to shift the additional labour hxce in the ‘ agricultural sector to secondary and tertiary sectors. Recall that service sector contributes more than half of the GDP but provides employment to less than onefourth of the labour force. Thus the productivity of labour is higher in the service sector. 17. 8 INTER-GOVERNMENTAL FISCAL RELATIONS As you are aware India follows a democratic form of government, which is federal in nature. We have diffmt layem of govemment with specific powq and 14 Features of the Indian Economy esponsibilities defined by the Indian Constitution. Taking into account the amendments made so far the Constitution provides for three layers of government: Central, State and Local. In order to carry out its responsibilities the government at each level has been assigned powers to impose taxes on individuals and organizations based on criteria such as income, expenditure, production and certain economic transactions. The majo r source of revenue for the central government is income tax (on individuals and corporations), central excise, and custom duties (on imports of goods). On the other hand, there is a long list of taxes assigned to the states (including taxes on alcoholic beverages, agricultural income, and land) but the major source of tax revenue for the states is the sales tax. The tax base of the local governments is limited to local services and production. We have to keep certain things in mind while analyzing inter-govemmenth fiscal relations. One, there should be no fiscal overlapping so that the same tax should not be imposed by more than one layer of government. The Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution specifies the manner in which taxes are to be imposed by the central and state level govemments. Two, taxation power is assigned to a particular level of government keeping in view the geographical area oh which the impact of the tax is felt. Thus the tax categories assigned to the Centre are generally broad-based and their impact is felt beyond state boundaries. Three, the residual power with respect to taxation remains with the central government. While exercising such power the Centre introduced ‘service tax' during 1990s on the provision of specific services. Recall fiom Section 17. 7 of this unit that the share of s e ~ c essec tor in GDP is more than half and its share is increasing over the. Service tax is slated to be an important source of revenue in times to come. Four, imposition of taxes and hation of tax rates is a matter of political economy. In order to fbrther political interests governments have many times in the past waived taxes or excluded certain categories from taxation. A widely debated issue in this context is imposition of taxes on agricultural income, which is a state subject and state governments have invariably avoided taxation of rural rich. It has given rise to widespread tax evasion as individuals take advantage of the concession allowed to fanners and report non-agricultural income as agricultural income. Five, there is a mismatch between the tax base and the responsibilities assigned to different layers of govemments. The states have always complained about inadequate revenue compared to their expenditure. Similarly, there is shortage of funds at local government level compared to the expenditure they carry out. Six, tax base is unevenly distributed across states. For example, rich states have a relatively higher share of people who pay taxes. Similarly, relatively higher amount of excise duties is collected fiom industrially better off areas. In order to tackle the problems of inadequate tax revenue at the state level, the Centre transfers h d to the states. Apart from meeting the gap between revenue and expenditure the devolution of funds to subordinate layers of government has the effect of bringing in regional balance in economic development over time. There are three modes of transfer of h d s fiom the Centre to the states. First, the centre collects certain taxes (particularly, personal income tax and excise duties) and allocates a share of the tax proceeds to the states. In order to streamline such allocation the constitution provides for setting up of a Finance Commission every five years, which suggests criteria of such sharing between the ‘ Centre and the states on the one hand, and amongst different states on the other. So flir twelve Finance Commissions have been set up and each Finance commission Economic Development while suggesting such formulae have been poverty, backwardness, tax effort, fiscal discipline and population. The second mode of transfer of fhds h m the Centre to the states is the grants and loans extended to states for implementing development plans. As you know, while preparing the Five Year Plans the Centre sets targets and investments by different sectors of the economy. Against this backdrop the states prepare their annual plans which is approved by the Planning Commission. The states receive grants and loans h m the Centre which supplement the revenue generated at the state level. The Planning Commission allocates fhds to states as per formula devised by the National Development Council. For major states the ratio of grants to loan is 30:70. The third mode of transfer of h d s h m the Centre to the states is the grants given by central ministries to their counterparts in different states for specified projects. Such projects are wholly M e d by the Centre (under ‘central schemes') or the states are asked to contribute a proportion of the cost (in the case of 1 ‘centrally sponsored schemes'). The devolution of'fhds from the Centre to the states has been a matter of political economy. The allocation of funds across states, particularly by the Planning Commission and Central Ministries, is riddled with bargaining power of the state government, presence of pressure groups, and political interests rather than balanced economic growth. The grants extended to local bodies by the states is mostly discretionary and no set rule is formulated so far. The adoption of value added tax (VAT) by states in lieu of sales tax has opened up fhxh debates on tax base of the state governments. Check Your Progress 2 Note: i) Space given below for your answers. i) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Explain the three stages of demographic transition. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2) What are the changes. observed in the sectoral composition of GDP-in India? ‘ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 16 3) Explain the concept of disguised unemployment. Features of the IndinEconomy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4) What are the modes of transfer of h d s h mth e Centre to the States? 5) State whether the followin g statements are true or false. a) Unorganised sector is also called registered sector. b) In developed economies primary sector contributes a large share in GDP. ) Productivity of labour is higher in the tertiary sector than in the primary sector. 17. 9 LET US SUM UP Indian economy is considered to be a developing economy. At the time of Independence the agricultural sector contributed about 50 per cent of the GDP. Over the years its share has decreased to about 22 per cent of GDP which means that the share of industrial and service sectors is increasing. This is a positive development. But agricultural sector employs about 60 per cent of the labour force and this percentage is not declining which is a matter of concern. India is the second largest in terms of population and it is still growing at a very high rate. About one-third of the population in the country are poor. There is considerable underemployment and unemployment in the economy also. The federal nature of government in India requires interaction among different layers of government according to set rules. It is also desirable to achieve consistency between revenue generation and government expenditure to carry out responsibilities at each layer of government. Keeping in view the shortage of funds at the state level the Centre provides grants and loans to the states. India has made radical changes in her economic policies since 1991. Economic libedzation has resulted in setting up of more industries and the level of technology has improved. The annual growth rate of GDP has increased to about 6 per cent ; during the liberalization period. Its export potential also has improved and India Economic Development has a strong fareign exchange reserve. We will discuss the changes in economic policy, popularly termed ‘economic reforms' in subsequent units. 17. 10 KEY WORDS Constant Prices Disguised Unemployment : Financial Year Gross Domestic Product : (GDP) National Income Per Capita Income Public Sector National income in money terms would increase because of two factors: i) increase in quantity produced, and ii) increase in price of commodities. In order to neutralize the effect of price increase national income is expressed in terms of prices of a particular year, called ‘base year'. When we say that GDP is given in terms of 1993-94 prices, GDP of all the years are adjusted for price changes so that growth in GDP is due to increase in quantity w. A person is considered to be disguisedly nemployed if hisher contribution to total output is zero. Even if we withdraw the worker from work, output will not decline. Let us take an example. For the year 2004, calendar year is from January 1 to December 3 1. On the other hand, financial year 2004-05 is h m April 1,2004 to March 3 1, 2005. It is the total amount of final goods and services produced within the geographical tenitory of the economy. It does no t include intermediate goods and service, i. e. , goods and services that are not consumed directly but used for M e r production. Moreover, it does not include second hand sales ecause it does not reflect production; rather it is a change of ownership of goods produced earlier. It is also called ‘net national product' (NNP). It is the total of final goods and services produced . by Indian nationals (both within the country and residing abroad) minus the amount of dqmiation during the production process. If we add the amount of depreciation to NNP we get GNP. Remember that GNP is different from GDP. In GDP of India we include final goods and sexvices produced within the geographical territory of India (both by Indian and foreign nationals). It is national income divided by total population of the country. , -ha. . It includes the economic activities undertaken by the government. Vicious Circle of Poverty : It reflects a flow of inter-related economic activities that keep an economy under-developed. According to Ragnar Nurkse underdeveloped economies have low rate of saving which gives rise to low rate of investment. Due to low rate of investment, low level technology is employed in production activities. Because of low level of technology, output produced is lower. Consequently, saving is low and the cycle

Heart of Darkness Analysis Essay

The heroic journey. This is a familiar feature of many stories. From Odysseus of ancient Greece to Harry Potter of popular culture, this archetype remains a predominant feature of a myth. From gypsies sitting around campfires telling tales of magic and wonder, to twenty-first century audiences crowding around their television screens, stories that we tell are to enlighten, advise and entertain. The structure of creating tales with archetypes composes an enthralling piece of work and a story line that keeps readers engaged and interested. These archetypal patterns are woven into Joseph Conrad’s story Heart of Darkness. The novella encompasses the frames of the ancient myths and the hero’s myth along with the archetypes which reveal the hero’s inner world. Symbolically, the Hero’s journey represents the descent into the unconscious. In Heart of Darkness, the hero is represented in Marlow and his personal unconscious is represented by the jungle, or the forest; the forest is traditionally dark, like a labyrinth. The most developed stage of Marlow’s journey is to realize his Shadow. When he reaches the jungle, he recognizes it. In the story the shadow character is Kurtz. The other archetypes aren’t quite as well developed; nevertheless, their meaning is very important in the understanding of the story. A hero is character that remains almost exactly the same throughout the ages; as it has distinct qualities and characteristics that each adhere to. As Campbell states, the Hero must feel that â€Å"something is missing in life† (Campbell) and it should evoke his desire to leave the familiar space and enter the unknown. For Marlow, a spur to go on a quest was his, â€Å"the mariner’s, not being on a voyage for long enough and desire to visit the place he had wanted to go since childhood†(Conrad Pg. 21). His desire to go to Congo was so strong that having failed by himself, Marlow asked his relatives to help him get appointed for a job there; as that notion drove him. Marlow was eager to go to the jungle because there was a river which â€Å"resembling an immense snake uncoiled †¦ had charmed [him]† (Conrad Pg. 22), when he had looked upon a map. A strong impact of the idea on Marlow’s onscious reveals that it was caused by the hero which typically creates either outward or inward necessity for changes. Being a wonderer he could do without traveling. Therefore, the longing for voyages implies that the hero got tired of the surroundings of the land and needed an escape to the sea or a river. However, the need for a change in surroundings may be symbolically viewed as a need of a change in one’s mind. Campbell claims that the hero has to cross the threshold of consciousness and adds that the entrance is not free and is protected. The guardians â€Å"mark the point of no return† (Campbell). In Heart of Darkness the symbolic threshold is the Continental Concern Marlow worked for. Here Marlow’s first entering the company should be considered. He entered the building of the Company through an â€Å"immense double door ponderously ajar† (Campbell Pg. 45). The door shares its meaning with the threshold. It is a transitional point from one place to another, from lightness to darkness. What concerns Marlow was that he was invited to move from the conscious to the unconscious and discover the different realms. Nevertheless, the manner of his entrance was of great importance; he, the hero â€Å"slipped through one of these cracks† (Campbell Pg. 47). The contradiction of the â€Å"immense double door ponderously ajar† and â€Å"the crack† suggests that the other realm is entered through a narrow passage; a secrecy which creates the feeling of danger. Campbell claims that when the hero reaches his unconscious, another realm, he is overwhelmed with doubtful thoughts and sometimes despair. This is all considered to be a part of the process during the journey of the hero and coming to a realization and understanding, as well as obtaining the â€Å"elixir† Not only does Marlow feel uncomfortable, but the reader finds him doubtful, too. When he signed the contract, he â€Å"began to feel slightly uneasy †¦and there was something ominous in the atmosphere† (Campbell Pg. 49). Marlow tried to justify his eerie feeling and explained that in the following way: â€Å"A queer feeling came to me that I was an impostor. Odd thing that I, who used to clear out for any part of the world at twenty-four hours’ notice, with less thought that most men give to the crossing of a street, had a moment – I won’t say of hesitation, but of startled pause, before this commonplace affair. The best way to explain it to you is by saying that, for a second or two, I felt as though, instead of going to the center of a continent, I were about to set off for the center of the earth. † (Conrad Pg. 93) The very fact that Marlow felt as if going to the center of the earth sharpens its geographical parallel with the human psyche. The movement in the geographical space represents the movement in the hero’s unconscious. One of the key elements in the Hero’s journey and self-acceptance is the realization of the shadow. However, the shadow may contain some positive features if a person under certain conditions represses his positive side and lives out the negative. The shadow embodies the qualities the person dislikes in others and therefore represents the opposite side of the hero. In Heart of Darkness, the man of dark mystery is Kurtz. He is the Shadow figure of the hero Marlow. The first parallel between the hero and his shadow is that these two characters are the only two in the story who are given names. All the other are addressed by their profession, with the exception of the Russian. If the shadow is the opposite of the hero, Kurtz and Marlow respectively, it means that they both have the positive and negative aspects of the character. On the assumption that the hero assumes his shadow as a remarkable person it may be stated that the shadow possesses some good qualities. Consequently, Kurtz as the shadow encompasses both the negative and the positive. Kurtz, archetypally the hero’s Shadow, â€Å"presented himself as a voice† (Conrad Pg. 92) and all the other characters â€Å"were so little more than voices† (Conrad Pg. 92). The fact that the characters were no more than voices reveals their intangible nature. It may be assumed that the unconscious communicated with the conscious self using voices and the strongest of them was the voice of the Shadow. Kurtz’ ability to talk was the main characteristics he was adored for by other people. Among all his talents Marlow distinguishes the gift to express himself: â€Å"The point was in his being a gifted creature, and that of all his gifts the one that stood out preeminently, that carried with it a sense of real presence, was his ability to talk, his words – the gift of expression, the bewildering, the illuminating, the most exalted and the most contemptible, the pulsating stream of light, or the deceitful flow from the heart of an impenetrable darkness. † (Campbell Pg. 61) Although, Marlow is presented as a perfect story teller, it can be assumed that until he integrated his shadow he was an introvert. Marlow recalled that when he was going to the jungle he felt â€Å"the idleness of a passenger, my isolation amongst all these men with whom I had no point of contact† (Conrad Pg. 67). Due to his reserved nature, the hero’s shadow appeared as an eloquent person implying the quality the conscious needed. The outward experience or the hero may help one to repress the shadow’s drives and impulses. The hero can be defined â€Å"as an inner guiding factor that is different from the conscious personality and that can be grasped only through the investigation of one’s own dreams† (Conrad Pg. 8). However, the shadow may possess â€Å"valuable, vital forces, they ought to be assimilated into actual experience and not repressed† (Conrad Pg. 83). In such a case the hero must live out what initially seems to be dark, but truly is not. In Heart of Darkness the archetype of the mentor is symbolically represented by the character of the Russian whom Marlow met at Kurtz’ station: â€Å"There he was before me, in motley, as though he had absconded from a troupe of mimes, enthusiastic, fabulous. His very existence was improbable, inexplicable, and altogether bewildering. He was an insoluble problem. It was inconceivable how he had existed, how he has succeeded in getting so far, how he managed to remain – why he did not instantly disappear. †¦The glamour of youth enveloped his parti-colored rags, his destitution, his loneliness, the essential desolation of his futile wanderings. †¦Glamour urged him on, glamour kept him unscathed. He surely wanted nothing from wilderness but space to breathe in and to push on through. His need was to exist, and to move onwards at the greatest possible risk, and with a maximum of privation. † (Conrad Pg. 72) The mentor is an archetype pointing to the wholeness of psyche. It is a state when an individual does not have any secret wishes. The Russian’s need to exist â€Å"with a maximum of hardship† shows that the mentor is not obsessed by the wishes, opposed to the shadow who is greedy. The mentor urges the hero to move forward and often suggests the ways how the hero should act in order to overcome the obstacles. In the story, it was the Russian who had helped Marlow to face Kurtz. Another archetype of which is distinguished in the novella is that of a woman, the temptress and destroyer of man. In Conrad’s story, the archetype of the temptress is a complex one, since it is represented by the two distinctive women characters and is not directly connected with the hero, but is rather viewed in relation to the shadow embodied in the figure of Kurtz. One is the native woman whom Kurtz met in the jungle and another is her opposition; his fiancee in Europe whom Kurtz called â€Å"My Intended† (Conrad). Nevertheless, the two women have an indirect impact on Marlow, since â€Å"to him the meaning of an episode was not inside like a kernel but outside†(Campbell Pg. . Thus, it may be assumed that, according to the archetypal pattern of the Hero’s journey, Marlow happens to recognize the possible variations of the two-fold temptress. After confronting Kurtz in the jungle and persuading him not to join the natives in their rites, Marlow brought him on the deck of the steamboat and saw the native woman who was Kurtz’ mistress: â€Å"She walked with me asured steps, draped in striped and fringed cloths, treading the earth proudly, with a slight jingle and flash of barbarous ornaments. She carried her head high; her hair was done in the shape of a helmet; she had brass leggings to the knee, brass wire gauntlets to the elbow, a crimson spot on her tawny cheek, innumerable necklaces of glass beads on her neck; bizarre things, charms, gifts of witch-men, that hung about her, glittered and trembled at every step. She must have had the value of seven elephant tusks upon her. She was savage and superb, wild-eyed and magnificent; there was something ominous and stately in her deliberate progress. (Conrad Pg. 102) The description shows the native woman as fascinating and abominable. Marlow found her â€Å"superb† and â€Å"magnificent†, self-assured by her femininity as she walked â€Å"proudly† and â€Å"with measured steps†. But at the same time she was â€Å"savage†, â€Å"wild-eyed† and â€Å"ominous†. Since the savage woman is related to Kurtz and represents the wilderness where he resided, it should be noted that Kurtz both desired and hated â€Å"all this and somehow couldn’t get away† (Conrad Pg. 99). Marlow described the state of Kurtz as â€Å"the fascination of abomination – you know, imagine the growing regrets, the longing to escape, the powerless disgust, the surrender, the hate† (Conrad Pg. . The black woman embodies the negative temptress. The temptress kept Kurtz by her â€Å"charms†, however, he strived to get back to his fiancee. He was tempted by the wilderness which was embodied by the native woman. She â€Å"had taken him, loved him, embraced him, got into his veins, consumed his flesh, and sealed his soul to its own by the inconceivable ceremonies of some devilish initiation† (Conrad Pg. 102). Marlow wasn’t lured into temptation since he recognized the danger of temptation with its devastating effects through his contemplation on Kurtz’ life. Her appearance suggests an element of a female warrior ready to fight for the possession of Kurtz. When seeing her, the Russian said that â€Å"if she had offered to come aboard I really think I would have tried to shoot her† (Conrad Pg. 89). Since the figure of the Russian represents the very determination of the mentor, and tries to not allow the temptress to approach the hero, it suggests that the temptress was eager to draw the Shadow, manifested in Kurtz, back to the jungle. Therefore, it may be assumed that she tried to prevent the integration of the shadow, but failed as Kurtz had stayed on the steamboat and left for Europe. The temptress, try as she may, was unable to keep Kurtz in the jungle with her. Another representation of the temptress is shown through the figure of Kurtz’ fiancee. Marlow describes her in the following way; â€Å"She struck me as beautiful – I mean she had a beautiful expression. †¦She seemed ready to listen without mental reservation, without suspicion, without a thought for herself. She came forward, all in black, with a pale head, floating towards me in the dusk. †¦I noticed she was not very young – I mean not girlish. She had a mature capacity for fidelity, for belief, for suffering. †¦This fair hair, this pale visage, this pure brow, seemed surrounded by an ashy halo from which the dark eyes looked out at me. Their glance was guileless, profound, confident, and trustful. She carried her sorrowful head as though she were proud of her sorrow. † (Conrad Pg. 12) As the passage shows, for Kurtz, his fiancee represents an ideal woman in every way possible. She represents the capacity for personal love in man’s psyche. She claimed that â€Å"it was impossible to know him [Kurtz] and not to admire him† (Conrad Pg. 116). Moreover, when Marlow kept hesitating to tell her the last words of Kurtz since they were very heavy ones; â€Å"The Horror! The Horror! † she cried â€Å"don’t you understand I loved him – I loved him – I loved him! † (ibid, 204). In her case, the fact that she repeated it three times suggests the spiritual nature of her love.

Representation of men in Hard Times by Charles Dickens Essays

Representation of men in Hard Times by Charles Dickens Essays Representation of men in Hard Times by Charles Dickens Essay Representation of men in Hard Times by Charles Dickens Essay Essay Topic: Hard Times Your Analysis To Show How Dickens Represents Men In The Novel. The extract introduces Mr. Bounder to the reader. He is introduced as being a proud, arrogant, factual man, displaying his dominance and is used by Dickens to represent men in the novel. This idea of Bounders pride and dominance is not unexpected due to the stigmas of the era, men were generally considered to be better, more capable than women. His factual nature Is also typical as It represents the theme of fact and fancy that Dickens has used throughout the book. Firstly Dickens makes It clear that Bounder is successful through the use of the ascendancy list he was a rich man; banker, merchant, manufacturer and what not which shows his some of his accomplishments in life as well as how influential he was in industry. This could be interpreted to demonstrate the many pursuits that are available to men, and their dominance of the business world. Mr. Granddad Is also mentioned briefly in the extract as Bounders eminently practical friend using the motif to represent him. The multiple modifiers suggest that the nature of men is very sensible, factual and elastic. Dickens uses the appearance of Mr. Bounder to give the audience an impression of the representation of men throughout Hard Times. The reader is introduced to Bounder as a big loud man, with a stare and metallic laugh. This dramatic declarative uses a metaphor to show how Inhuman, or emotionless/ detached men and Bounder can be, the metallic laugh suggests a certain coldness and robotic nature. The multiple modifiers In great puffed head and forehead indicates the intelligence of Mr. Bounder while also suggesting that he may be big headed and full of himself. This view is supported by the simile a man with a pervading appearance on him of being inflated like a balloon showing that Bounder is over inflated, full of wind and self importance. Dickens describes that Bounder talks with a brassy speaking-trumpet of a voice-Walt this metaphor showing that he talks blasting out what he has to say. It also links to the Idiom blowing your own trumpet, again showing how full of himself this character Is. This is again demonstrated with the noun phrases coarse material, swelled veins stained skin, although these also illustrate how undesirable and horrible Bounder is. Dickens states that he had not much hair. One might have fancied he had talked it off. The dramatic declarative uses a metaphor to indicate that Bounder is always speaking In order to get his pollen across. Furthermore it suggests that his factual nature may grow rather boring. Bounders hair Is also said to be constantly blown about by his windy boastfulness this metaphor may suggest that half the things he says are not true, or exaggerated. Through the appearance of Mr. Bounder Dickens gives a very harsh view of men, it seems he represents them as being egotistical, and lull of self-importance, as well as being generally unpleasant. They are also however shown to be practical and pragmatic. Dickens also uses Bounders actions and behavior throughout the extract to represent men In Hard Times. Dickens states and adverb sufficiently vaunt show that Bounder felt that there was never enough said about him and his less desirable past. The verb proclaiming also suggests this, demonstrating pride and arrogance. Bounder is named the Bully of humility in a metaphor indicating that he tramples over honesty, discretion and humbleness, heartsickness that tend to portray fancy rather than facts. As Bounder talks, he takes a commanding position which to subdue Mrs. Grandkid. The verbs, commanding and subdue show how he is pushing her down and putting her in her place, they additionally demonstrate the different social standings of men and women, women are lower while men are dominant. In conclusion, Dickens has used the descriptions of Mr. Bounders appearance and actions to demonstrate his representations of men throughout Hard Times. Men are shown to be egotistical, factual and rather unpleasant throughout.

The Different Meanings of Dürfen in German

The Different Meanings of Dà ¼rfen in German Dà ¼rfen  (to be allowed to) is one of the six modal verbs  that are so essential in both English and German. As with other modal verbs, it is almost always used with another verb in a sentence. Dà ¼rfen  can also take on a few different meanings, depending on its context: As opposed to kà ¶nnen  (can, to be able to), the spelling of dà ¼rfen is far different from its English equivalent may, allowed/permitted to. This makes it a little more challenging to study, but its so important that students of the German language should fully understand its various meanings and learn how to conjugate dà ¼rfen. Dà ¼rfen: To Be Allowed to The main definition of dà ¼rfen  is may or to be allowed to. This is the most common use for the verb and you will find yourself using it quite often. Darf ich draußen spielen, Mutti? (May I play outside, Mom?)Der Schà ¼ler durfte nur einEN Bleistift und einEN Radiergummi zur Prà ¼fung mitbringen. (The student was only allowed to bring a pencil and an eraser to the exam.) When it comes to dà ¼rfen,  it seems that both English and German speakers make the same mistake. Did your English teacher ever reply to you with â€Å"I don’t know if you can, but you certainly may† in response to a question you formulated with â€Å"Can I†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , instead of â€Å"May I†¦?† Germans share the same habit as you can compare in these two sentences which have completely different meanings: Kann ich bitte zur Toilette hingehen? (Can I go to the washroom?)Darf ich bitte zur Toilette hingehen?  (May I go to the washroom?) Dà ¼rfen: Polite Requests Dà ¼rfen  can also be used as a form of politeness when asking a question or making a request. Wenn ich bitten darf, mit welcher Fluglinie sind Sie geflogen?  (If I may ask, on which airline did you fly?Darf ich rein?  (May I come in?) Dà ¼rfen: A Possibility There are also times when you may want to use dà ¼rfen  to indicate a strong possibility that something will happen. To form  this meaning of dà ¼rfen, the subjunctive II must be used. Sie dà ¼rfte um 8 Uhr hier sein.  (She will most likely be here at 8 o’clock.)Meine Tante dà ¼rfte bald mehr Geld bekommen.  (My aunt will most likely receive more money.) Nicht Dà ¼rfen   When you add an infinitive verb to nicht dà ¼rfen, you express the prohibition of something. Hier darf man nicht schwimmen.  (You are not allowed to swim here.) When you add the subjunctive II and an infinitive to nicht dà ¼rfen, you express an accusation. Deine Hausaufgaben httest du nicht vergessen dà ¼rfen, jetzt bekommst du keine gute Note. (You should not have forgotten your homework, now you won’t receive a good mark.)

E-Business security in your organisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

E-Business security in your organisation - Essay Example It has over 3 million accounts, a quarter of which are active, and has total assets of $61 million (e-gold 4). For a decade-long company, it has not grown much compared to the largest online payment system, Paypal, which claims to do $60 million worth of transactions daily. e-gold transactions are 100 percent backed by metal deposits and are not reversible, which means that unlike credit card transactions, once a transaction is made there is no possibility that it can be cancelled. e-gold can be used to pay for transactions over other merchant websites and makes its money from maintenance fees that range up to 1 percent of the total transaction amount. Based on personal experience, the website is easy to use, getting an account is fast, and the fees are reasonable. The website (www.e-gold.com) is open 24/7 so account holders can transact anytime and anywhere. Users avail of e-gold for several types of transactions. They can have funds transferred to their e-gold account, and then have it transferred to a bank account in any currency using a reliable third party site like OmniPay or The Gold Shop. A user does this by simply logging on to a personal e-gold account, "spend" the desired amount (say, $1,000 worth of e-gold) into OmniPay, take note of the spend batch number issued for the transaction, log out of e-gold, log in to OmniPay, and fill up a bank transfer form with instructions to OmniPay to transfer the $1,000 that was "spent" or sold less fees to any bank account anywhere in the world. The funds take anywhere from two to five days to reach the bank account. Users normally tested the system by transferring small amounts, and when it worked they began moving bigger amounts of money. When someone anywhere in the world wants to pay an e-gold account holder, they give instructions to pay via e-gold by buying the e-currency and "spending" the amount to the user's account. The user can check his or her e-gold account from anywhere, even from a hot spot on a beach resort in the French Riviera, so they will know whether the payments have gone through or the funds have been transferred to the specified bank account. The user can then do transactions from there. This writer has been using e-gold for over a year now, and is happy with the service. This is the reason why this analysis on e-business security was done on this company, which has been only too happy to oblige and share information with me for this paper. Choosing the Standard One problem with selecting a standard to evaluate the e-business security issues of a merchant website is that there are too many standards to choose from. The main reason is simple: the chosen standard becomes a cash flow machine for the firm that develops it. There are several companies like Verisign, Oracle, IBM, and a host of other for-profit and not-for-profit institutions known by their acronyms: SEI, IETF, NIST, W3C, SAI, ISACA. The list is seemingly endless. The Europe-based International Organization of Standards is known for its ISO standards, the more famous of which are the ISO 9000 series used by companies to document their total quality management programs (Arnold 15). The letters ISO/IEC prefix its standards, which are adopted in both the U.S. and Europe. The British Standards Institute (BSI) is a similar organization that has several years of experience developing working standards for many industries. For these

Macroeconomics of the health care policy in United States Essay

Macroeconomics of the health care policy in United States - Essay Example The general health care was viewed important by each and every Americans and they took pride in the development of the system within the country, the increasing use of modern updated technologies and the growth of modernized hospitals dispersed in different areas of the country. People of the country started believing that health care system of the country has been one of the contributing factors behind the enormous growth of the country. However, it appeared to be just a myth when in the twenty first century several researchers and analysts within the health care system concluded that the health care system of the country was in a position of providing proper health care to only 60% of the chronically ill of the country. Series of statistical facts regarding the health care system of the country reveal that the system is collapsing. The main reason that was viewed behind the collapse of the system was that about 15.8% of the population of the country was not provided with health ins urance despite the country being the highest in its expenditure behind the health care system of the country. The country’s expenditure of the health care sector in the year 1990 was 12 % of the total GDP of the country of that particular year which increased to 13.1 % in the year 2000. The other industrialized countries of the world mainly Canada, West Germany, and Japan spent much less on the health care of the country but still they were able to cover most of their total population much more comprehensively than the United States of America. (Kronenfeld, 2002, pp. 1-9: Patel, Rushefsky, 2006, pp34-35: Shi, Singh, 2005, p144) Use of the most advanced techniques for improving health care thus did not imply that the populations of the... The price of the products hence will not be in accordance with the consumer’s preference since the producers have more information regarding the medical service provider and other medical products. These market imperfections have always been a cause of concern of the health care system of the country. Moreover, according to the data published by OECD in the year 2003, there exists an inverse relationship between the public spending on health care and the contribution of the latter in the total GDP of the country. The data reveals that with increasing public spending the sector’s share in the GDP reduces. Regulations on the health care system reduce competition among the different providers and hence it results in a reduction of their efficiency. Moreover, a majority of the hospitals of the country are generally financed by parties other than the buyer of the health care policies and its suppliers. Thus, proper macroeconomic policies to regulate these loopholes in the he alth care system of the country are to be taken so as to ensure a proper functioning of the system with the society being optimally benefited. The government should encourage people to increase their propensity to save such that those resources come to help in times of need for buying proper and required medical and health services. With the high rate of savings, highly deductible medical insurance with low premiums can be provided by the government that will appear beneficial both from the individual and social point of view.